Jane Austen 16 December 1775 - July 18, 1817) was an English novelist known primarily to his six main novels, which interpret, criticism and commentary on the nobility of landing England at the end of the 18th century. Austen's plot often explores women's dependence on marriage in pursuit of social standing and favorable economic security. His works criticized the second half novel of sensitivity of the 18th century and are part of a transition to literary realism of the 19th century. The use of her biting irony, along with her realism and social commentary, has earned her recognition among critics and scholars.
With the publication of Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park (1814) and Emma (1816), he achieved success as a published author. He wrote two additional novels, Northanger Abbey Persuasion , both published posthumously in 1818, and resumed, finally titled Sanditon but died before completion. He also left three volumes of adolescent writing in the manuscript and another unfinished novel, The Watsons. His six complete novels are rarely printed, though published anonymously and bring moderate success and little fame throughout his lifetime.
A significant transition to his posthumous reputation took place in 1833, when his novels were republished in the Novel novel Richard Bentley series, illustrated by Ferdinand Pickering, and sold as a set. They are gradually gaining wider recognition and popular readership. In 1869, fifty-two years after his death, his nephew's publication of A Memoir of Jane Austen introduced a compelling version of his writing career and a life that should have no meaning to an eager audience.
Austen has inspired many important essays and literary anthologies. His novels have inspired many films, from the 1940s Pride and Prejudice to more recent productions such as Sense and Sensibility (1995) and Love & amp; Friendship (2016).
Video Jane Austen
Sumber biografis
There is little biographical information about Jane Austen's life except for some surviving letters and biographical notes written by her family. During his lifetime, Austen wrote about 3,000 letters but only about 160 survive. Many of the letters were written for Austen's brother, Cassandra, who in 1843 burned most of them and cut pieces from the ones he kept. Cassandra secretly destroyed or censored her sister's letters to prevent them from falling into the hands of relatives and to ensure that "younger nephews do not read Jane Austen's sometimes sour or frank comments to neighbors or family members." Cassandra believed that in the interest of Jane's wisdom and inclination to be frank, these details had to be destroyed. Lack of records of Austen's life make modern biographers work little.
This situation is exacerbated because successive generations of families remove and clean up the details of Austen's opaque biography. The heirs of Jane's brother Admiral Francis Austen destroy more letters; the details were excised from the "Biography Notice" written by his brother in 1818; and the details of the family continued elided or beautified in his niece A Memoir Jane Austen , published in 1869, and in the biography of William and Richard Arthur Austen-Leigh Jane Austen: and his Letter, was published in 1913. Family legends and relatives made reflective of their biases in favor of "Auntie Jane who is nice and calm", describes a woman whose home situation is happy and whose family is the mainstay of her life. Austen scholar Jan Fergus explains that modern biographies tend to include details that are cut from letters and family biographical material, but the challenge is to avoid the polarized view that Austen has a period of deep unhappiness and is "a disillusioned and wounded woman who is entirely trapped an unpleasant family ".
Maps Jane Austen
Life
Family
Jane Austen was born in Steventon, Hampshire, on December 16, 1775. She was born a month later than her parents expected; his father wrote about his arrival in a letter that his mother "must have been expected to be taken to bed a month ago". He added that his arrival was greatly welcomed as a "future friend for his sister". The winter of 1776 was very loud and it was not until 5 April that he was baptized in a local church with the singular name of Jane.
For much of Jane's life, her father, George Austen (1731-1805) served as rector of the Anglican parish at Steventon, and Deane was nearby. He came from a family of old, respectable, and rich wool merchants. For centuries every generation of the eldest sons received an inheritance, their wealth consolidated, and the family branch of George fell into poverty. He and his two sisters became orphaned as children and had to be taken by relatives. His brother, Philadelphia, went to India to find a husband and George entered St John's College, Oxford in a fellowship, where he most likely met Cassandra Leigh (1739-1827). He is from Leigh's leading family; his father was rector at All Souls College, Oxford, where he grew up among nobles. His eldest brother, James, inherited the wealth and great plantations of his aunt, Perrot, with the only condition that he changed his name to Leigh-Perrot.
George and Cassandra exchanged miniatures in 1763 and were probably involved around that time. George received life for the parish of Steventon from the rich husband of his second cousin, Thomas Knight, who owns Steventon and his field, one of which the Austens are hired to live. Two months after Cassandra's father died, they married on April 26. 1764 at St Swithin Church in Bath, licensed, in a simple ceremony. They left for Hampshire the same day.
Their income is modest, with little life George per year ; Cassandra brings to the hope marriage of a small heritage at the time of her mother's death. The Austens took up temporary shelter at the nearby Deane rectory until Steventon, a decrepit 16th century house, underwent the necessary renovations. Cassandra gave birth to three children while living in Deane: James in 1765, George in 1766, and Edward in 1767. His habit was to keep the baby at home for several months and then place it with Elizabeth Littlewood, a woman who lived nearby to breastfeed. and lift for twelve to eighteen months.
Steventon
In 1768 the family finally lived in Steventon. Henry was the first child born there, in 1771. At about this time Cassandra could no longer ignore the signs that Little George was a developmental defect. He was the target of a seizure, perhaps deaf and dumb, and he chose to send him out to be nurtured. In 1773, Cassandra was born, followed by Francis in 1774, and Jane in 1775.
According to Honan, the atmosphere of Austen's home is "open, amused, easy intellectual", where the ideas of those with whom Austens may disagree politically or socially are considered and discussed. Families rely on patronage of their relatives and visit many family members. Cassandra Austen spent the summer of 1770 in London with his sister George, Philadelphia, and his daughter Eliza, accompanied by another sister, Ny. Walter and his daughter, Philly. Philadelphia and Eliza Hancock, according to Le Faye, "bright comets illuminating the calm clerical life system of Hampshire's countryside, and news of their foreign travel and fashionable London life, along with their sudden descent to the household of Steventon. time, all helping to broaden Jane's young horizon and affect life later in life and work. "
Cassandra Austen's cousin, Thomas Leigh, visited several times in the 1770s and 80s, inviting young Cassie to visit them in Bath in 1781. Jane's first mention occurred in the family documents when she returned, "... and almost at their home is when they meet Jane & Charles, two little people from the family, who have to go as far as New Down to meet the chaise, & have the pleasure of riding home. "Le Faye writes that," Mr Austen's prediction for his daughter the younger ones are fully justified.Never more sisters than each other than Cassandra and Jane, while in a very dear family there seems to be a special relationship between Cassandra and Edward in one hand, and between Henry and Jane on the other. "
From 1773 to 1796, George Austen supplemented his income with farming and by teaching three or four boys at once, who boarded his home. Pastor Austen has an annual income of £ 200 from two lives. This is a very modest income at the time; in comparison, a skilled worker like a blacksmith or carpenter can earn about 100 pounds per year while the typical and annual income of the noble family is between Ã, 1,000 and Ã, £ 5,000.
During his lifetime, Austen attends church regularly, socializes with friends and neighbors, and reads novels - often from his own compositions - speaks with his family at night. Socializing with neighbors often means dancing, whether it's in someone's home after dinner or at parties held regularly in meeting rooms at the town hall. His brother Henry later said that "Jane likes to dance, and excels in it".
Education
In 1783, Austen and his sister Cassandra were sent to Oxford to be educated by Mrs Ann Cawley who took them with her to Southampton when she moved there later this year. In the autumn the two girls are sent home when they catch the typhus and Austen is almost dead. Austen has since been educated at home, until he attended boarding school in Reading with his sister from the beginning of 1785 at Reading Abbey Girls' School, ruled by Mrs. La Tournelle, who has cork legs and passion for the theater. The school curriculum may include some French, spelling, sewing, dancing and music and, perhaps, drama. The sisters returned home before December 1786 because the school fees for the two girls were too high for the Austen family. After 1786, Austen "never again lived outside the boundaries of his immediate family".
The rest of his education comes from reading, guided by his father and brother, James and Henry. Irene Collins believes that Austen "uses some of the same schoolbooks as the boys" that his father guided. Austen apparently had unlimited access both to his father's library and a family friend, Warren Hastings. These collections together together amount to a large and diverse library. His father was also tolerant of Austen's experiments that were sometimes obscene in writing, and gave his sisters expensive papers and other materials for their writing and drawing.
Private theater is an important part of Austen's education. From his childhood, family and friends held a series of dramas in the rectory warehouse, including Richard Sheridan The Rivals (1775) and David Garrick Bon Ton . Austen James's eldest sister writes prologues and epilogues and she may join in this activity, first as a spectator and then as a participant. Most of the skits, which show how Austen's satirical talents are cultivated. At the age of 12, he tried his own hand in dramatic writing; he wrote three short dramas during his teenage years. Juvenilia_ (1787-1793) "> Juvenilia (1787-1793)
From the age of eleven, and perhaps earlier, Austen wrote poetry and stories for himself and his family's entertainment. In this work the details of daily life are exaggerated, the plot device is parodily popularized, and "the story is full of anarchist fantasies about women's powers, licenses, illicit behavior, and general high spirits", according to Janet Todd. Austen then compiled a fair copy of the twenty-nine original works into three bound notebooks, now referred to as
Among these works is a satirical novel in letters titled Love and Freindship sic , written at the age of fourteen in 1790, in which he mocked the novel -novel of popular sensitivity. The following year he wrote The History of England, a thirty-four-page manuscript accompanied by thirteen miniature watercolors by his sister, Cassandra. Austen History parodied the writing of popular history, especially Oliver Goldsmith History of England (1764). Honan speculated that shortly after writing Love and Freindship sic , Austen decided to "write for a profit, to make a story of his main effort", that is, to become a professional writer. When he was about eighteen, Austen began writing longer, more sophisticated works.
In August 1792, aged seventeen, Austen began writing Catholic or Bower, which practiced his mature work, especially Northanger Abbey; it was left unfinished and the story was picked up at Lady Susan, which Todd describes as less desirable than Catharine . A year later, he started but left a short drama, then titled Sir Charles Grandison or Happy Man, a comedy in 6 innings, which he restored and completed around 1800. This is a brief parody of various summary books of Austen's favorite contemporary novel school , The History of Sir Charles Grandison (1753), by Samuel Richardson.
When Austen became an aunt for the first time at the age of eighteen, she sent Fanny-Catherine Austen-Knight's new nephew "five short pieces... Juveniles now known collectively as' Memos'.., claiming to be her ' Advice on Young Women behavior ". For Jane-Anna-Elizabeth Austen's nephew (also born in 1793) Jane Austen wrote "two more 'Miscellanious [sic] Morsels', dedicating it to [Anna] on June 2, 1793,' confident that if you take them seriously, from them Significant instructions, in respect of Your Behavior in Life. '". There is manuscript evidence that Austen continued to work on these pieces until the end of 1811 (when he was 36 years old), and that his nephew and niece, Anna and James Edward Austen, made further additions by the end of 1814.
Between 1793 and 1795 (ages eighteen to twenty) Austen wrote Lady Susan, a swordsman, usually described as the most ambitious and sophisticated early work. Unlike other Austen works. Austen's biographer Claire Tomalin describes the novel's heroine as a sexual predator who uses her intelligence and charm to manipulate, betray and abuse her lover, friends, and family. Tomalin writes:
Told in letters, it is as plainly plotted as a drama, and as a cynical tone as one of the most embarrassing of the Recovery playwrights who may have given some inspiration... It stands alone in Austen's work as the study of adult women who are intelligent and his character strength is greater than anyone he meets.
According to Janet Todd, the model for the title character is probably Eliza de Feuillide, who inspired Austen with her glamorous life stories and adventures. Eliza's French husband was beheaded in 1794; he married Jane's brother, Henry Austen in 1797.
Tom Lefroy
When Austen was twenty, Tom Lefroy, a neighbor, visited Steventon from December 1795 to January 1796. He had just completed his university degree and moved to London for training as a lawyer. Lefroy and Austen will be introduced to ball parties or other neighborhood gatherings, and it is clear from Austen's letters to Cassandra that they spend a lot of time together: "I'm almost afraid to tell you how my friend and I in Ireland behave. You are all the most extravagant and surprising on the street dancing and sitting together. "
Austen wrote in his first surviving letter to his sister, Cassandra, that Lefroy was "a very polite, handsome, and joyful young man." Five days later in another letter, Austen writes that he expects the "offer" of his "friend" and that "I will reject him, however, unless he promises to give his white coat", goes on to write "I will confide in myself in the future for Mr. Tom Lefroy, for whom I do not give you six cents "and refused the other. The next day, Austen wrote: "That day will come where I am wooing my last with Tom Lefroy and when you receive this it will end, my tears flowing as I write on this melancholy idea".
Halperin warns that Austen often quips the popular sentimental romantic fiction in his letters, and some statements about Lefroy may be ironic. However, it is clear that Austen is really interested in Lefroy and then none of the other suitors have ever been measured against him. The Lefroy family intervened and sent him away at the end of January. Marriage is not practical, because both Lefroy and Austen would know. No money, and he relies on a great uncle in Ireland to finance his education and build his legal career. If Tom Lefroy then visited Hampshire, he was carefully kept away from Austens, and Jane Austen never saw him again. In November 1798, Lefroy was still in Austen's mind when he wrote to his sister that he drank tea with one of his relatives, eager to ask about him, but could not raise the topic.
Initial script (1796-1798)
Upon completion of Lady Susan, Austen started her first full length novel Elinor and Marianne . His sister remembered that it was read to the family "before 1796" and was told through a series of letters. Without preserving the original manuscript, there is no way of knowing how many original drafts survived in an anonymous novel published in 1811 as Sense and Sensibility.
Austen started his second novel, First Impressions (later published as Pride and Prejudice), in 1796. He completed his initial draft in August 1797, age 21; like all his novels, Austen reads his work aloud to his family as he does and it becomes an "established favorite". At this time, his father made the first attempt to publish one of his novels. In November 1797, George Austen wrote to Thomas Cadell, a well-established publisher in London, to inquire whether he would consider publishing First Impressions. Cadell returned Mr Austen's letter, marking it "Rejected by Return of the Post". Austen probably did not know his father's efforts. After the completion of First Impressions, Austen returned to Elinor and Marianne and from November 1797 until mid-1798, revising it heavily; he removes epistol formats that support third-person narrations and produces something close to Sense and Sensibility. In 1797, Austen met his cousin (and future brother-in-law), Eliza de Feullide, a French aristocrat whose first husband Comte de Feullide was executed, caused him to flee to England, where he married Henry Austen. The description of the Comte de Feullide's implementation associated with his widow left Austen with the intense horror of the French Revolution that lasted for the rest of his life.
During mid-1798, after completing the revision of Elinor and Marianne, Austen began writing a third novel entitled Susan - later Northanger Abbey - An allusion to the novel Gothic is popular. Austen completed her work about a year later. In early 1803, Henry Austen offered Susan to Benjamin Crosby, a London publisher, who paid £ 10 for copyright. Crosby promised early publications and went a step further to advertise the book publicly as "in the press", but did nothing else. The manuscript remained in Crosby's hands, unpublished, until Austen bought back the copyright from him in 1816.
Bath and Southampton
In December 1800 George Austen unexpectedly announced his decision to retire from the ministry, leave Steventon, and move the family to the 4th, Sydney Place in Bath. While retiring and traveling well for Austens elderly, Jane Austen was surprised to learn that she moved from the only house she had ever known. The indication of his state of mind was his lack of productivity as a writer during his stay in Bath. He was able to make some revisions for Susan , and he started and then left a new novel, The Watsons, but nothing like the productivity of 1795-1799. Tomalin suggests this reflects the profound depression that made him a writer, but Honan disagreed, arguing Austen wrote or revised his manuscript throughout his creative life, except a few months after his father died. It is often claimed that Austen was unhappy at Bath, which caused him to lose interest in writing, but perhaps Austen's social life in Bath prevented him from spending much time writing novels. Critic Robert Irvine argues that if Austen spends more time writing novels while he is in the countryside, it may be because he has more free time than to be happier in the countryside as he is often debated. Furthermore, Austen often moved and traveled to southern England during this period, which is hardly an environment conducive to writing long novels. Austen sold the right to publish Susan to Crosby & amp; The company, which pays it Ã, Â £ 10. The Crosby & amp; The company advertises Susan , but never publishes it.
The years from 1801 to 1804 were a blank space for Austen scholars because Cassandra destroyed all his letters from his sister in this period for unknown reasons. In December 1802, Austen received the only marriage proposal she knew. He and his sister visited Alethea and Catherine Bigg, old friends who lived near Basingstoke. Their younger brother, Harris Bigg-Wither, has just finished his education at Oxford and also at home. Bigg-Wither proposed and Austen accepted. As Caroline Austen explains, Jane's nephew, and Reginald Bigg-Wither, a descendant, Harris is unattractive - she is a small, innocent man who speaks a bit, stammers as he speaks, aggressive in conversation, and almost completely awkward. However, Austen knows him since both young and marriage offers many practical advantages for Austen and his family. He is the heir of a vast family plantation located in the area where the sisters grew up. With these sources, Austen can give his parents a comfortable old age, giving Cassandra a permanent home and, perhaps, helping his brothers in their careers. The next morning, Austen realized that he had made a mistake and withdrew his acceptance. There are no contemporary letters or diaries explaining how Austen feels about this proposal. Irvine describes Bigg-Wither as someone who "... it seems a man is very difficult to be liked, let alone love".
In 1814, Austen wrote a letter to his nephew, Fanny Knight, who had sought advice on a serious relationship, telling him that "has written so much on one side of the question, now I will turn around & draw you to not much further, and do not think to accept it unless you really like it Whatever is preferred or borne than marriage without affection ". British scholar Douglas Bush wrote that Austen had "had a very high love of love that should unite husband and wife... All her heroes... know in proportion to their maturity, the meaning of passionate love". A possible autobiographical element in Sense and Sensibility occurs when Elinor Dashwood contemplates that "the worse and the most irreparable of all evils, the connection to life" with an unsuitable man.
In 1804, while living in Bath, Austen started but did not complete his novel, The Watsons . The story centers on an invalid and impoverished pastor and his four unmarried daughters. Sutherland describes this novel as "a study of the harsh economic realities of dependent women's lives". Honan suggested, and Tomalin agreed, that Austen chose to stop working on the novel after his father died on January 21, 1805 and his personal circumstances were similar to his character too close to his comfort.
The relatively sudden death of his father left Jane, Cassandra, and their mother in a difficult financial situation. Edward, James, Henry, and Francis Austen promised to make an annual contribution to support their mother and sister. Over the next four years, family life arrangements reflect their financial insecurity. They spent most of their time in a rented room in Bath before leaving town in June 1805 for a family visit to Steventon and Godmersham. They moved during the autumn months to the Worthing beach resort, on the Sussex coast, where they live at Stanford Cottage. This is where Austen is considered to have written a fair copy of Lady Susan and added "Conclusions". In 1806 the family moved to Southampton, where they shared a home with Frank Austen and his new wife. Most of this time they spend visiting various branches of the family.
On April 5, 1809, about three months before the family moved to Chawton, Austen wrote an angry letter to Richard Crosby, offering him a new manuscript of Susan if necessary to secure the direct publication of the novel, and requesting his original return in order he can find another publisher. Crosby replied that he did not agree to publish the book at any given time, or at all, and that Austen could buy back the script for the £ 10 he had paid and find another publisher. He did not have the resources to buy copyright back at that time, but was able to buy it in 1816.
Chawton
Around the beginning of 1809, Austen's brother, Edward, offered to his mother and his siblings a more established life - the use of a large hut in the village of Chawton which is part of Edward's housing, Chawton House. Jane, Cassandra, and their mother moved to Chawton's cottage on July 7, 1809. Life was quieter in Chawton than ever since moving the family to Bath in 1800. The Austens family did not socialize with the nobility and were only comforted when the family visited. Anna's nephew described the family life in Chawton as "a very quiet life, according to our idea, but they are great readers, and beside the household our aunts are busy working with the poor and teaching a girl or boy to read or writing. "
At that time, married British women had no legal power to sign contracts, and it is normal for a woman who wants to publish to have a male relative who represents her to sign a contract. Like most women writers at the time, Austen's books were published anonymously. At that time, the ideal role for a woman was as a wife and mother, and writing for women was best regarded as a form of secondary activity; a woman who wants to be a full-time writer feels patronizing her feminine, so the books by women are usually published anonymously to keep the pride that female authors publish only as a kind of part-time job, and not looking to be "literate monkeys" (ie celebrities).
During his time at Chawton, Jane Austen published four well-received novels. Through his brother Henry, publisher Thomas Egerton agreed to publish Sense and Sensibility, which, like all Jane Austen novels except Pride and Prejudice, was published "commission-based", ie the author's financial risk. When issuing a commission, the publisher will advance the cost of the publication, repay themselves for the books sold and then charge a 10% commission on each book sold, paying the rest to the author. If a novel does not recover costs through sales, the authors are responsible for them. The alternative to selling through commissions is to sell copyrights, where an author receives a one-time payment from the publisher for the script, which occurs with Pride and Prejudice . Austen's experience with Susan (the manuscript that became Northanger Abbey ) where she sold the copyright to Crosby & amp; The 10-pound children, who did not publish the book, forced him to buy back the copyright for his work to be published, leaving Austen suspicious of this publishing method. The last alternative, selling by subscription, where a group of people will agree to buy the book in advance, is not an option for Austen because only famous authors or have influential aristocratic patrons who would recommend the book to come to their friends can sell with subscribe. Sense and Sensibility appeared in October 1811, and was described as written "By a Lady". Because it is sold on commission, Egerton uses expensive paper and sets the price on 15 shillings.
The reviews were favorable and the novel became fashionable among young aristocratic opinion makers; sold-out edition in mid-1813. The Austen novel was published in a larger than normal edition for this period. The small size of a public reading novel and the huge cost associated with hand production (especially the cost of handmade paper) means that most novels are published in editions of 500 copies or less to reduce risks for publishers and novelists. Even some of the most successful titles during this period are published in not more than 750 or 800 copies and then reprinted if demand continues. Novel Austen was published in a larger edition, ranging from about 750 copies of Sense and Sensibility to about 2,000 copies of Emma. It is unclear whether the decision to print more copies than the usual Austen novels is driven by publishers or authors. Since all but one Austen book was originally published "on commission", the risk of overproduction was largely hers (or Cassandra after his death) and publishers may be more willing to produce larger editions than normal practices when their own funds are at risk. The edition of popular non-fiction works is often much larger.
Austen produced Ã,  £ 140 from Sense and Sensibility, which gave her some financial and psychological independence. After the success of Sense and Sensibility, all Austen's later books were billed as written "By Sense and Sensibility" and Austen's name never appeared in his books during his lifetime. Egerton then published Pride and Prejudice, the revision of First Impressions, in January 1813. Austen sold the copyright to Pride and Prejudice to Egerton for  £ 110. To maximize profits, he uses cheap paper and charges the price at 18 shillings. He advertised the book widely and it was instantly successful, collecting three good reviews and selling well. If Austen sells Pride and Prejudice in commissions, he will make a profit of Ã,  £ 475, or twice his father's annual income. In October 1813 Egerton was able to start selling the second edition. Mansfield Park was published by Egerton in May 1814. While Mansfield Park is ignored by reviewers, it is very popular among readers. All copies were sold within six months, and Austen's income on the novel was larger than his other novels.
Unknown to Austen, his novels were translated into French and published in cheap editions of pirated copies in France. Literary critic Noel King commented that given the anger that occurred in France at the time was a fertile romantic fantasy, it is remarkable that his novel with an emphasis on the daily life of English has such a market in France. However, the King warns that the Austen chairman in France, Madame Isabelle de Montolieu, has only the most basic English knowledge, and the translation is more "imitation" than the proper translation, since Montolieu relies on assistants to provide a summary, which he then translates to in embellished French that often radically altered Austen's plot and character. The first of the Austen novels to be published as a writer was in France, when Persuasion was published in 1821 as La Famille Elliot ou L'Ancienne Inclination.
Austen knew that the Regent's Prince admired his novels and kept a set in each of his dwellings. In November 1815, the librarian of Prince Regent James Stanier Clarke invited Austen to visit the residence of the Prince of London and hinted that Austen had to dedicate Emma who would come to the prince. Although Austen did not like the Regent's Prince, he could hardly refuse the request. Austen disagreed with the Regent's Prince on his account, gambling, drinking, extravagant manner and generally inappropriate behavior. He then wrote the Novel Plan, according to directions from various directions, an outline of satire of "perfect novel" based on the advice of many librarians for Austen's future novel. Austen was deeply troubled by Clarke's often arrogant literary advice, and the Novel A Plan paraded Clarke as a retaliation for all the unwanted mail she received from the royal librarian.
In mid-1815 Austen moved his work from Egerton to John Murray, the more famous London publisher, who published Emma in December 1815 and the second edition of Mansfield Park in February 1816.. Mansfield Park was not good, and this failure offset most of the revenue from . This is Austen's last novel published during his lifetime.
While Murray prepared Emma for publication, Austen embarked on The Elliots, which was later published as Persuasion . He completed his first draft in July 1816. Also, shortly after the publication of Emma, ​​Henry Austen bought back the copyright to Susan from Crosby. Austen was forced to postpone the publication of one of these completed novels by family finances. Henry Austen bank failed in March 1816, seized all his assets, leaving him in debt and losing Edward, James, and Frank Austen in large numbers. Henry and Frank can not afford to pay the contributions they have made to support their mothers and sisters.
Disease and death
Austen felt unwell in early 1816, but ignored the warning signs. By the middle of that year, his decline was not wrong, and he began to experience slow and irregular setbacks. Most biographers rely on Dr.'s retrospective diagnosis. Vincent Cope in 1964 and the list of causes of his death as Addison's disease, although the disease has finally been described as a result of Hodgkin's lymphoma. When his uncle died and abandoned all his wealth to his wife, who effectively deprived his relatives, he suffered a recurrence, writing, "I am ashamed to say that Uncle Will's surprise brings relapses... but a weak Body must forgive weak nerves".
He continues to work regardless of his illness. Dissatisfied with the ending of The Elliots, he rewrote the last two chapters, which he completed on August 6, 1816. In January 1817, Austen began The Brothers (titled Sanditon when published in 1925), and completed twelve chapters before stopping work in mid-March 1817, possibly due to illness. Todd describes Sanditon's hero Diana Parker as "an energetic dormitory". In the novel, Austen taunts the hypochondriacs and although he describes her heroine as "mentally ill", five days after leaving a novel he wrote about himself that he changed "every color is wrong" and lived "especially on the couch". He placed his pen on March 18, 1817, recorded it.
Austen makes light of his condition, describing it as "bile" and rheumatism. As his illness progressed, he had difficulty walking and lack of energy; in mid-April he was locked up in bed. In May Cassandra and Henry took her to Winchester for treatment, at which point she suffered pain and welcomed death. Austen died in Winchester on July 18, 1817, at the age of 41 years. Henry, through his priestly connections, arranged for his brother to be buried in the northern aisle of the central part of Winchester Cathedral. The tombstone composed by his brother, James, praised Austen's personal qualities, expressed hope for his salvation and mentioned "the extraordinary talent of his mind", but did not explicitly mention his achievements as a writer.
Posthumous publication
After Austen's death, Cassandra, Henry Austen and Murray arranged the publication of Persuasion
In 1832 Richard Bentley purchased the remaining copyright for all his novels, and during the following winter published five volumes illustrated as part of the series of Novel Standar . In October 1833, Bentley released the first edition collected from his work. Since then, Austen's novels continue to be printed.
Genres and styles
Austen's works criticized sentimental novels in the second half of the 18th century and are part of a transition to a 19th century literary realism. The early English novelist Richardson, Henry Fielding, and Tobias Smollett, followed by sentimentalist and romantic streams such as Walter Scott, Horace Walpole, Clara Reeve, Ann Radcliffe, Laurence Sterne and Oliver Goldsmith, whose Austen style and genre were rejected, slim thread "for the Richardson and Fielding traditions for" realistic studies of manners ". In the mid-20th century, literary critics F. R. Leavis and Ian Watt put it in the traditions of Richardson and Fielding; both believe that he used their tradition of "irony, realism and satire to form a superior writer of both."
Walter Scott notes "Austen's resistance to the sensationalism of rubbish from many modern fictions - 'ephemeral production that supplies the regular demand of sprinkling places and circulated libraries'". But his rejection of this genre is very complex, as evidenced by Northanger Abbey and . Similar to William Wordsworth, who dismisses the modern panic novel in "Preface" for his book Liris Liris (1800), Austen keeps away from expedition novels; discipline and innovation that he demonstrated is similar to him, and he shows "that rhetorically fewer artistically." He avoids popular Gothic fictions, stories of terror where a heroine is usually stranded in a remote location, a castle or a monastery (32 novels between 1784 and 1818 containing the word "monastery" in their title). But at Northanger Abbey he mentions figuratively, with heroine Catherine anticipating a move to a remote locale. Rather than a full-scale rejection or parody, Austen changed the genre, juxtaposing reality, with elegant room descriptions and modern conveniences, against the "new-fueled" heroes of women. He also does not really degrade the Gothic fiction: instead he changes the settings and situations, such that a heroine is still in prison, but his imprisonment is a mundane and real-ordered behavior and strict rules of the ballroom. In Austen's Sense and Sensibility presents a more complex character than sentimental fiction, according to Keymer's criticism, noting that although it is a popular sentimental fiction parody, "Marianne in his sentimental histrionic responds to the counting world... with the screams quite justified from the suffering of women. "
Richardson Pamela , a prototype for sentimental novel, is a didactic love story with a happy ending, written at a time when women are beginning to have the right to choose husbands but are limited by social conventions. Austen tried Richardson's scripture style, but found a narrative flexibility more conducive to his realism, a realism in which every conversation and movement carries a significant weight. The narrative style using indirect speech is free - he is the first English novelist to do so extensively - where he has the ability to present character thinking directly to the reader and yet retains narrative control. Style allows a writer to distinguish discourse between the narrator's voice and its values ​​and characters.
Austen has a natural ears to speak and dialogue, according to the scholar Mary Lascelles. "Some novelists can be more meticulous than Jane Austen as in the expression and thought of their character." Techniques such as fragmentary speech indicate the nature of their characters and tones; "syntax and non-vocabulary phrases" are used to denote social variants. Dialogue expresses the mood of a character - frustration, anger, happiness - each treated differently and often through various sentence structure patterns. When Elizabeth Bennett refused Darcy, her rigid speech and tangled structure of sentences revealed that she had hurt her:
From the very beginning, from the first moment I can almost say, about my acquaintance with you, your manners impressed me with complete confidence in your arrogance, your pride, and your self-loathing of other people's feelings, is like establishing that the basics rejection, in which successful events have built such an unshakable dislike. And I have not known you a month before, I feel that you are the last person in the world that I want to marry.
The Austen plot highlights the traditional dependence of women on marriage to maintain social standing and economic security. As an art form, the 18th century novel lacked the equivalent seriousness of the 19th century, when the novel was treated as a "natural vehicle for discussion and ventilation of what is important in life". Instead of digging deeper into the soul of his character, Austen enjoyed it and cultivated it with humor, according to critic John Bayley. He believes that the source of his intelligence and irony is his own attitude that comedy "is the saving grace of life". Part of Austen's fame lies in the historical and literary meaning that she was the first woman to write a great comic novel. Samuel Johnson's influence is evident, in that he follows his suggestion to write "life-giving representations that can arouse happiness".
His humor derives from his simplicity and lack of superiority, allowing his most successful character, such as Elizabeth Bennett, to go beyond the trivialities of life, to which more ignorant characters are too absorbed. Austen uses comedy to explore the individualism of women's life and gender relations, and he seems to have used it to find good in life, often combining it with "ethical sensibility," creating artistic tension. Critics Robert Polhemus writes, "To appreciate Austen's drama and achievement, we need to realize how deeply his desire for respect and ridicule... and his comic imagination reveals both the harmony and contradiction of his mind and his visions as he tries to reconcile his satirical bias with his sense of goodness."
Reception
Contemporary response
Since Austen's works were published anonymously, his works became famous. They are fashionable among opinion makers, but are rarely reviewed. Most of the reviews are short and balanced favorably, though shallow and careful. They most often focus on the moral lessons of the novel. Sir Walter Scott, a prominent novelist of the day, contributed one anonymously. Using the review as a platform to maintain an incurable novel genre, he praised Austen's realism. Another important preliminary study was associated with Richard Whately in 1821. However, Whately denied writing reviews, which drew favorable comparisons between Austen and great men like Homer and Shakespeare, and praised the dramatic quality of his narrative. Scott and Whately set the tone for almost all of Austen's 19th-century subsequent criticisms.
19th century
Because Austen's novels are incompatible with Romantic and Victorian expectations that "strong emotions [will] be authenticated by the extraordinary look of sound and color in writing", 19th-century critics and audiences prefer the works of Charles Dickens and George Eliot. In a rare sympathetic review, in this case Emma in 1815, Sir Walter Scott wrote that the book displays "the art of copying from nature because it is truly in the course of a common life, and presents to the reader , not a beautiful view of the imaginary world, a true and striking representation of what happens every day around it ". Although Scott is positive, Austen's work does not match the aesthetic values ​​that exist in the Romantic zeitgeist. The novels were reissued in England from the 1830s and sold at a fixed price, but they were not in demand. The first French critic who informed Austen was PhilarÃÆ'¨te Chasles who actually considered him a writer, giving him two sentences in an 1842 essay on the influence of Sir Walter Scott, calling him a boring and imitative writer who wrote nothing about substance.. Besides Chasles, Austen was almost completely ignored in France until 1878.
Austen has many readers who admire in the 19th century who consider themselves part of the literary elite. Philosopher and literary critic George Henry Lewes reveals this point of view in a series of enthusiastic articles published in the 1840s and 1850s. This theme continues at the end of this century with the novelist Henry James, who referred Austen several times with approval and on one occasion rated him with Shakespeare, Cervantes, and Henry Fielding as one of the "great painters of life".
James Edward Austen-Leigh's publication A Memoir of Jane Austen in 1869 introduced Austen to the wider public as "dear Aunt Jane", a distinguished aunt of the girl. The publication of the Memoir prompted the publication of Austen novels - the first popular editions released in 1883 and quickly illustrated editions and collections of collectors followed. Author and critic Leslie Stephen describes the popular mania that began to flourish for Austen in the 1880s as "Austenolatry". In 1878, French critic LÃÆ' Â © on Boucher published the essay of Le Roman Classique en Angleterre, where he called Austen a "genius," which was the first time that nickname was used in France to describe Austen.. Austen's first French translation into true loyalty to the original took place in 1899 when FÃÆ' © lix FÃÆ' © nÃÆ'Ã… © on the translation of Northanger Abbey into French as Catherine Moreland . Around the beginning of the 20th century, members of the literary elite reacted to Austen's popularization. They call themselves as Janeite to distinguish themselves from the masses who do not understand their work properly. For example, Henry James responds negatively to what he describes as a "conspicuous obsession" with Austen, a growing public interest that goes beyond Austen's "Austen intrinsic benefits and interests". American literary critic A. Walton Litz notes that the "anti-Janites" of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries consisted of Mark Twain's literary squad, Henry James, Charlotte Bronte, DH Lawrence and Kingsley Amis, but in "any adverse cases. judgment only reveals the special limitations or eccentricities of the critics, leaving Jane Austen relativity untouched ".
Modern
Some of Austen's works have been the subject of academic study. The first dissertation on Austen was published in 1883, by George Pellew, a student at Harvard University. The first examination comes from the 1911 essay by Oxford Shakespeare A. A. Bradley scientist. In his essay, Bradley group Austen's novels into "early" and "late" works, a distinction still used by scholars today. The first academic books devoted to Austen in France were Jane Austen by Paul and Kate Rague published in 1914, in which Ragues set out to explain why French critics and readers should take Austen seriously. In the same year, LÃÆ' Â © onie Villard publishes Jane Austen, Sa Vie et Ses Oeuvres, which was originally his PhD thesis, marking the first time that Austen has undergone serious academic studies in France. The second test in English is the work collected by Austen R. W. Chapman in 1923. Not only was the first edition of Austen's scientific papers, it was also the first scientific edition of any British novelist. Chapman's text remains the basis for all editions of Austen's next published work.
With the publication in 1939 by Mary Lascelles's Jane Austen and Her Art, Austen's academic studies took over. Lascelles' innovative work includes analysis of the books read by Austen and his reading influences on his work, an expanded analysis of Austen's style, and his "narrative art". Concerns arise that academics are taking over Austen's criticism and that it is becoming increasingly esoteric, a debate that has persisted ever since.
The period since World War II has seen more scholarships in Austen use a diversity of critical approaches, including feminist theory, and perhaps the most controversial, postcolonial theory. The continuous break between Austen's popular appreciation, especially by modern Janeites, and Austen's academic appreciation have widened. After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Austen was disliked by authorities who only wanted Western authors published in translations whose work could be presented as representing the West in a negative light, and Austen was considered too "reckless" for this purpose. As an animation as Austen's treatment of the 1950s, it blanched in addition to the treatment of his books during the "Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution" in China between 1966-1969, when Austen was banned as the author of the "bourgeois British imperialist". In the late 1970s, Austen was allowed to be published in China, where his popularity with readers troubled authorities who had difficulty understanding that people sometimes wanted to read books for fun, not dialectical purposes. The sign that Austen can still spark debate can be seen when American English professor Gene Koppel mentions in his lecture that Austen and his family are "Tories of the deepest dye" [Tories is a conservative party whig whiw is a liberal party], a statement that confuses many students liberal Koppel, who was very amused, complained to him how Austen might be a conservative. Conservative Koppel notes some feminist writers such as Claudia Johnson and Mollie Sandock who claim Austen for their own interests. Quoting the work of Hans-Georg Gadamer, Koppel argues that different people can and do react to the same literary work in different ways because art is always a subjective discipline because different people have their standards for evaluating lectors. Thus, Koppel argues that the competing interpretation of Austen's work, provided that they are based on the reading of his work are all equally valid, and so it is equally possible to see Austen as a feminist who critiqued the District people and as conservative of the values ​​of the District people.
Adaptation
Austen's novels have produced sequels, prequels and adaptations of almost every kind, from soft-core pornography to fantasy. From the nineteenth century, members of his family published inferences for his incomplete novel, and by 2000 there were over 100 printed adaptations. The first dramatic adaptation of Austen was published in 1895, Rosina Filippi Duologues and Scenes from Jane Austen's Novel: Organized and Adapted for Space-Drawing, , and Filippi was also responsible for the first professional adaptation stage, > The Bennets (1901). The first film adaptation was the 1940 MGM production of Pride and Prejudice starring Laurence Olivier and Greer Garson. Radiation of BBC television since the 1970's has sought to adhere to Austen's plot, characterization and setting. The British critic Robert Irvine notes that in the adaptation of American films from the Austen novels, beginning with the 1940 version of Pride and Prejudice and continuing to this day, the class is subtly underestimated because the United States is officially a nation egalitarian. in which all equal people and the people of the District of England are portrayed by Austen based on a hierarchy based on land ownership and ancient family names is one that is unacceptable to Americans as a whole.
From 1995 a large number of Austen's adaptations began to emerge, with Ang Lee's film of Sense and Sensibility, which screenwriter and star Emma Thompson won the Academy Award, and a very popular mini-TV series on the BBC. i> Pride and Prejudice , starring Jennifer Ehle and Colin Firth. The 2005 British production of Pride and Prejudice, directed by Joe Wright and starring Keira Knightley and Matthew Macfadyen, was followed in 2007 by ITV Mansfield Park, Northanger Abbey and Persuasion , and in 2016 by Love & amp; Friendship , the movie version of Lady Susan that borrowed the title Austen Love and Freindship [sic].
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See also
- the family and ancestors of Jane Austen.
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Source of the article : Wikipedia
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