Feminism are political movements, ideologies, and social movements with a common goal: to define, establish, and achieve political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. This includes seeking educational and professional opportunities for women equal to men.
The feminist movement has campaigned and continues to campaign for the rights of women, including the right to vote, to hold public office, to work, to get fair wages or equal wages, to own property, to receive education, to enter into contracts, to have equal rights in marriage, and maternity leave. Feminists also work to ensure access to legal abortion and social integration, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment and domestic violence. Changes in acceptable clothing and physical activity are often part of the feminist movement.
Feminist campaigns are generally regarded as a major force behind major social historical changes for women's rights, especially in the West, where they are almost universally credited with achieving women's suffrage, gender neutrality in English, reproductive rights for women (including access to contraception and abortion), and the right to enter into contracts and own property. Despite the advocacy of feminists, and has, in particular, focused on women's rights, some feminists, including the bell hook, have argued for including the release of men in their aims because they believe that men are also harmed by traditional gender roles. The feminist theory, which emerged from the feminist movement, aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining the social role of women and life experiences; have developed theories in various disciplines to respond to gender issues.
Many feminist movements and ideologies have evolved over the years and represent different points of view and goals. Some forms of feminism have been criticized for considering only the white, middle, and college perspectives. This criticism leads to the creation of special and multicultural forms of feminism, including black feminism and intersectional feminism.
Video Feminism
Histori
Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher, was praised for having invented the word "fÃÆ' Â © minism" in 1837. The first "fÃÆ' Â © minism" ("feminism") and "fÃÆ' Â © ministe" ("feminist") times appear. in France and the Netherlands in 1872, Britain in the 1890s, and the United States in 1910, and the Oxford English Dictionary registered 1852 as the first year of "feminist" and 1895 for "feminism". Depending on historical moments, cultures and countries, feminists around the world have different causes and goals. Most western feminist historians argue that all movements that work for women's rights should be regarded as feminist movements, even when they do not (or do not) apply the term to themselves. Other historians claim that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and its descendants. The historians use the label "protofeminist" to describe the previous movements.
The history of the modern western feminist movement is divided into three "waves". Each wave is dealt with different aspects of the same feminist issues. The first wave consisted of the nineteenth and early twentieth-century women's suffrage movement, which promoted women's right to vote. The second wave was associated with the idea and action of the women's liberation movement that began in the 1960s. The second wave campaigned for legal and social equality for women. The third wave is a continuation of, and reaction to, the perceived failure of second wave feminism, which began in the 1990s.
The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
The first wave of feminism was a period of activity during the 19th and early 20th centuries. In the UK and finally the US, focus on the promotion of the same contracts, marriages, parents, and property rights for women. By the end of the 19th century, a number of important steps had been made with the passing of legislation such as the British Baby Custody Act of 1839 which introduced years of doctrinal tenders for custody arrangements and giving women custody of their children. for the first time. Other legislation such as the Married Women Property Act of 1870 in the UK and extended in the 1882 Act, this being a model for similar laws in other UK regions. For example, Victoria passed a law in 1884, New South Wales in 1889, and the remaining Australian colonies passed similar legislation between 1890 and 1897. Therefore, with the turn of 19th-century activism focused primarily on gaining political power, especially the right to women's suffrage, although some feminists are active in campaigning for the sexual, reproductive, and economic rights of women as well.
Women's suffrage began in the British colonies of Australasia in the late nineteenth century, with self-regulating colonies in New Zealand giving women the right to vote in 1893 and South Australia granting women suffrage (the right to vote and ran for the post of parliament) in 1895. This was followed by Australia which granted women's suffrage in 1902.
In Britain, Suffragis voted and voted for women's voices, and in 1918, the People's Representative Assembly was passed to vote over women over 30 who own property. In 1928 it expanded to all women over 21. Emmeline Pankhurst is Britain's most famous activist, with Time naming him one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century who states: "he formed a women's idea for our time, he shook the community into a new pattern that could not possibly recover. "In the US, the leading leaders of this movement include Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony, each of whom campaigned for the abolition slavery before fighting for women's suffrage. These women are influenced by Quaker's theology of spiritual equality, which affirms that men and women are equal under God. In the United States, the first wave of feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment of the Constitution of the United States (1919), which gives women the right to vote in all states. The first wave terms were created retroactively to categorize western movements after the term "second wave feminism" began to be used to describe the newer feminist movement focusing on social and cultural battles. inequality, and political inequality.
During the late Qing period and reform movements such as the Hundred Day Reform, Chinese feminists called for women's liberation from traditional roles and the separation of Neo-Confucian gender. Later, the Chinese Communist Party created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had succeeded in achieving women's liberation.
According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism is closely related to Arab nationalism. In 1899, Qasim Amin, considered the "father" of Arab feminism, wrote the Liberation of Women, arguing for legal and social reform for women. He drew links between women's positions in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to the development of Cairo University and the National Movement. In 1923 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Union, became president and symbol of the Arab women's rights movement.
The Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1905 triggered the Iranian women's movement, which aims to achieve women's equality in education, marriage, career, and legal rights. However, during the 1979 Iranian revolution, many women's rights from the women's movement were systematically abolished, such as the Family Protection Act.
In France, women gained the right to vote only with the Provisional Government of the French Republic on April 21, 1944. The 1944 Consultative Assembly of Algeria was proposed on 24 March 1944 to provide for women eligibility but after an amendment by Fernand Grenier they were granted full citizenship, including the right to vote. Grenier's proposition was adopted 51 to 16. In May 1947, after the election of November 1946, sociologist Robert Verdier minimized the "gender gap", stating in Le Populaire that women do not choose consistently, divide, male, in accordance with social class. During the baby boom period, feminism is increasingly concerned. Wars (both World War I and World War II) have seen the temporary emancipation of some women, but the postwar period signals the return of a conservative role.
mid-twentieth century
By the mid-20th century, in some European countries, women still had some significant rights. Feminists in these countries continue to fight for the right to vote. In Switzerland, women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971; but in the Cantonese woman Appenzell Innerrhoden gained the right to vote on local issues only in 1991, when cantons were forced to do so by the Swiss Federal Supreme Court. In Liechtenstein, women were given the right to vote through a referendum of women's suffrage in 1984. The three previous referendums held in 1968, 1971 and 1973 have failed to guarantee women's right to vote.
Feminists continue the campaign for the reform of family law that gives husbands control over their wives. Although at the close of the twentieth century it has been abolished in Britain and the United States, in many continental European countries, married women still have few rights. For example, in France, married women do not receive the right to work without their husbands' permission until 1965. Feminists have also sought to abolish "marital liberation" in rape laws that hinder the prosecution of husbands for the rape of their wives. Previous attempts by first-wave feminists such as Voltairine de Cleyre, Victoria Woodhull and Elizabeth Clarke Wolstenholme Elmy to criminalize marital rape in the late nineteenth century have failed; this is only reached a century later in most Western countries, but it has not been achieved in many other parts of the world.
The French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir provided Marxist solutions and existentialist views on many feminism questions with the publication of Le DeuxiÃÆ'¨me Sexe ( Sex Type Second ) in 1949 This book reveals the sense of racial injustice feminist. The second wave of feminists is a feminist movement that began in the early 1960s and continues to this day; thus, he coexists with third wave feminism. The second wave of feminism is largely related to issues of equality outside the right of vote, such as ending gender discrimination.
Femists of the second wave see women's cultural and political inequalities as closely related and encourage women to understand their personal life aspects as being heavily politicized and as reflecting the structure of sexist power. Feminist activist and writer Carol Hanisch created the slogan "The Personal is Political", which became synonymous with the second wave.
Second and third wave feminism in China has been characterized by a reexamination of the role of women during the communist revolution and other reform movements, and a new discussion on whether women's equality has really been achieved.
In 1956, President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt initiated "state feminism", which prohibited discrimination on the basis of gender and granted women's suffrage, but also impeded political activism by feminist leaders. During Sadat's presidency, his wife Jehan Sadat openly advocated women's rights further, although Egyptian policies and society began to move away from women's equality with the new Islamic movement and growing conservatism. However, some activists propose a new feminist movement, Islamic feminism, which argues for women's equality within the framework of Islam.
In Latin America, the revolution brought changes in the status of women in countries like Nicaragua, where feminist ideology during the Sandinista Revolution helped the quality of women's lives but did not achieve social and ideological change.
In 1963, the book Betty Friedan The Feminine Mystique was published and helped voice the dissatisfaction felt by American women. The book is widely credited with triggering the beginning of the second wave of feminism in the United States. The success of the book also means that Friedan was able to lecture his views when he was on tour in 1970. Within ten years, after the successful publication of Friedan, women accounted for more than half the total percentage in the First World workforce.
End of the twentieth century and early twenty-first century
Third wave feminism
The third wave of feminism was traced to the appearance of Riot grrrl's feminist punk diversity in Olympia, Washington, in the early 1990s, and Anita Hill's televised testimony in 1991 - to the all-male, white-and-male Senate Judiciary Committee - that Clarence Thomas, who was nominated for the United States Supreme Court, has sexually harassed her. The term the third wave is credited to Rebecca Walker, who responded to Thomas's appointment to the Supreme Court with an article in Ms. Ms.'s magazine. , "Being the Third Wave" (1992). He writes:
So I am writing this as an appeal to all women, especially my generation women: Let Thomas's confirmation serve to remind you, as I do, that the fight is far from over. Let the dismissal of this woman's experience upset you. Turn that anger into a political power. Do not choose them unless they work for us. Do not have sex with them, do not break bread with them, do not take care of them if they do not prioritize our freedom to control our body and our lives. I am not a feminist post-feminism. I am the Third Wave.
The third wave of feminists also sought to challenge or avoid what is considered the second essentialist feminine definition of the wave, which, the third wave feminists argue, overemphasizes the experience of upper middle class white women. Third wave femists often focus on "micro-politics" and challenge what the second wave paradigm is like, or not, good for women, and tend to use post-structuralist interpretations of gender and sexuality. Feminist leaders who are rooted in the second wave, such as Gloria AnzaldÃÆ'ºa, bell hooks, Chela Sandoval, CherrÃÆ'e Moraga, Audre Lorde, Maxine Hong Kingston, and many other non-white feminists attempt to negotiate space in feminist thought for racial-related subjectivity considerations. The third wave of feminism also contains an internal debate between feminist differences, which believe that there are important psychological differences between the sexes, and those who believe there is no inherent psychological distinction between the sexes and argue that the role of gender is caused by social conditioning.
Standpoint Theory
Standpoint theory is a feminist theoretical point of view that believes one's social position affects their knowledge. This perspective argues that research and theory treat women and feminist movements as unimportant and refuse to see traditional science as unbiased. Since the 1980s, feminists have argued that feminist movements must address global issues (such as rape, incest, and prostitution) and cultural specific issues (such as female genital mutilation in parts of Africa and the Middle East, preventing the advancement of women in developed countries) to understand how gender inequalities interact with racism, homophobia, classism and colonization in the "matrix of domination".
Fourth wave feminism
The fourth wave of feminism refers to a revival of interest in feminism that began around 2012 and is associated with the use of social media. According to feminist scholar Prudence Chamberlain, the focus of the fourth wave is justice for women and opposition to sexual abuse and violence against women. Its essence, he writes, is "distrust that certain attitudes can still exist".
The fourth wave of feminism is "defined by technology", according to Kira Cochrane, and is characterized primarily by the use of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Tumblr, and blogs like Feminists to challenge misogyny and further gender equality.
Issues that the fourth wave of feminists focus on include road and workplace harassment, sexual assault on campus and rape culture. Scandals involving harassment, harassment and killing of women and girls have encouraged the movement. These include the gang rapes of Delhi 2012, the accusations of Jimmy Savile 2012, accusations by Bill Cosby, the murder of Isla Vista 2014, the 2016 trial against Jian Ghomeshi, 2017 alleged Harvey Weinstein and the subsequent Weinstein effects, as well as the Westminster sex scandal 2017.
Examples of fourth-wave feminist campaigns include Everyday Sexualism Projects, No More Page 3, Stop Bild Sexism, Mattress Performance , 10 Walking Hours in NYC as Women , # YesAllWomen, Unblock Putting, One Billion Increasing, March Women 2017, March Women 2018, and movement #MeToo. In December 2017, Time magazine chose some of the leading women activists involved in the #MeToo movement, dubbed "the silence breakers", as Person of the Year.
Post-feminism
The term post-feminism is used to describe the various perspectives that react to feminism since the 1980s. Although not "anti-feminist", post-feminists believe that women have achieved the goals of the second wave while being critical of the third wave of feminist aims. The term was first used to describe reactions to the feminism of the second wave, but is now a label for various theories that take a critical approach to earlier feminist discourse and includes challenges to the idea of ​​the second wave. Other post-feminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to today's society. Amelia Jones has written that post-feminist texts that emerged in the 1980s and 1990s describe the feminism of the second wave as a monolithic entity. Dorothy Chunn notes the "blame narration" under a post-feminist moniker, where feminists are underestimated because they continue to make demands for gender equality in the "post-feminist" society, where "gender equality has been achieved." According to Chunn, "many feminists have voiced dissatisfaction about the ways in which rights and equality discourse are now being used against them."
Maps Feminism
Theory
Feminist theory is the expansion of feminism into theoretical or philosophical fields. It covers jobs in various disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, economics, women's studies, literary criticism, art history, psychoanalysis and philosophy. Feminist theory aims to understand gender inequality and focus on gender politics, power relations, and sexuality. While giving criticism to this social and political relationship, many feminist theories also focus on promoting women's rights and interests. Themes explored in feminist theory include discrimination, stereotyping, objectification (especially sexual objectivity), oppression, and patriarchy. In the field of literary criticism, Elaine Showalter describes the development of feminist theory has three phases. The first he calls "feminist criticism", in which feminist readers examine the ideology behind the literary phenomenon. The second Showalter calls "gynocriticism", in which "woman is the producer of textual meaning". The last phase he calls "gender theory", in which "ideological inscriptions and literary effects of sex/gender systems are explored".
This was aligned in the 1970s by French feminists, who developed the concept of ÃÆ' Â © criture fÃÆ' Â © minine (which translates as 'female or feminine writings'). Helene Cixous argues that writing and philosophy are phallocentric and along with other French feminists such as Luce Irigaray emphasizes "writing from the body" as a subversive exercise. Julia Kristeva's work, a feminist psychoanalyst and philosopher, and Bracha Ettinger, artist and psychoanalyst, have influenced feminist theory in general and feminist literary critics in particular. However, as Elizabeth Wright's scholar says, "no French feminist has adapted to the feminist movement as it appears in the Anglophone world". Newer feminist theories, such as the Lisa Lucile Owens theory, have focused on characterizing feminism as a universal emancipatory movement.
Movements and ideology
Many overlapping feminist movements and ideologies have evolved over the years.
Political movements
Some branches of feminism closely track the political tendencies of larger societies, such as liberalism and conservatism, or the focus on the environment. Liberal feminism seeks individualistic equality of men and women through political and legal reform without altering the structure of society. Catherine Rottenberg argues that neoliberal shirts in liberal feminism have led to a form of feminism that becomes individual rather than collected and becomes separate from social inequality. Because of this, he argues that Liberal Feminism can not offer an ongoing analysis of the structure of male domination, power, or privilege.
Radical feminism regards the male-controlled capitalist hierarchy as a feature of women's oppression and the total deprivation and reconstruction of society as necessary. Conservative feminism is relatively conservative of the society in which it is located. Libertarian feminism regards people as self-owners and is therefore entitled to freedom from coercive disorder. Separatist feminism does not support heterosexual relationships. Lesbian feminism is so closely related. Other feminists criticized separatist feminism as sexist. Ecofeminists see men's control over land as a responsibility for women's oppression and the destruction of the natural environment; ecofeminism has been criticized for being too focused on the mystical relationship between women and nature.
Materialist ideology
Rosemary Hennessy and Chrys Ingraham say that forms of materialist feminism grew out of Western Marxist thought and have inspired a number of different (but overlapping) movements, all of which were involved in capitalism criticism and focused on ideological relationships with women. Feminist feminism argues that capitalism is the root cause of women's oppression, and that discrimination against women in domestic and work life is the effect of capitalist ideology. Socialist feminism distinguishes itself from Marxist feminism by stating that women's liberation can only be achieved by working to end the economic and cultural resources of women's oppression. Anarcha-feminists believe that class struggle and anarchy against the state require a struggle against patriarchy, which comes from an unintentional hierarchy.
Black and postcolonial ideology
Sara Ahmed argues that Black and Poscolonial feminism poses a challenge "for some place of organizing Western feminist thought." Throughout much of its history, feminist movements and theoretical developments have been led primarily by middle-class white women from Western Europe and North America. But women from other races have proposed alternative feminism. This trend accelerated in the 1960s with the civil rights movement in the United States and the collapse of European colonialism in Africa, the Caribbean, parts of Latin America and Southeast Asia. Since then, women in developing and former colonies and colored or ethnically or living poverty have proposed additional feminism. Womanism came after the early feminist movement was mostly white and middle-class. Postcolonial feminists argue that colonial oppression and Western feminism marginalize postcolonial women but do not change them passively or silently. Third world feminism and indigenous feminism are closely related to postcolonial feminism. These ideas also fit into ideas in African feminism, motherism, Satanism, nego- feminism, femalism, transnational feminism, and Africana feminism.
Socialist construction ideology
At the end of the 20th century feminists began to argue that gender roles are socially constructed, and that it is impossible to generalize women's experiences across cultures and history. Post-structural feminism refers to post-structuralism and deconstruction philosophy to argue that gender concepts are created socially and culturally through discourse. Postmodern feminists also emphasize the social construction of gender and the discursive nature of reality; However, as Pamela Abbott et al. note, the postmodern approach to feminism highlights "the existence of various truths (not just men's and women's point of view)".
Transgender people
The feminist view on transgender people is different. Some feminists do not view trans females as women, believing they have men's rights because of their sex work at birth. In addition, some feminists reject "transgenderism" because of the view that all differences in behavior between the sexes are the result of socialization. In contrast, transfeminists believe that the liberation of trans females is an important part of feminist goals. The third wave of feminists as a whole more supportive of the right of trance. A key concept in transfeminism is transmisogyny, defined as "irrational fear of, rejection of, or discrimination against transgender or transgender people".
Cultural movement
Riot grrrls takes an anti-corporate stance on independence and self-reliance. The emphasis on real riot grrrl on universal female identity and separatism often seems more closely related to second wave feminism compared with the third wave. The movement encourages and makes "teenage girls' spots", allowing them to express themselves fully. Lipstick feminism is a cultural feminist movement that tries to respond to the radical feminism reaction of the second wave of the 1960s and 1970s by reclaiming "feminine" identity symbols such as make-up, suggestive clothing and having sex appeal as valid and empowering. personal choice.
Demographics
According to a 2015 poll, 18 percent of Americans consider themselves feminists, while 85 percent report they believe in "equality for women". Despite popular beliefs about the same rights, 52 percent did not identify as feminists, 26 percent were unsure, and four percent did not respond.
According to an Ipsos 2014 poll of 15 developed countries, 53 percent of respondents were identified as feminists, and 87 percent agreed that "women should be treated equally to men in all areas based on their competence, not their gender". However, only 55% of women agree that they have "full equality with men and the freedom to achieve their full aspirations and aspirations".
Among women, some of the strongest support for feminism is found in Sweden, where one in three (36%) strongly agree that they define themselves as feminists. They were followed by women in Italy (31%) and Argentina (29%). Those in the middle of the rankings were British (22%), Spanish (22%), United States (20%), Australia (18%), Belgium (18%), France (18%), Canada (17 %), Poland (17%), and Hungary (15%). Most women disagree very much from Japan (8%), Germany (7%) and South Korea (7%).
A quarter of men in Italy (25%) and Argentina (25%), and two out of ten in Poland (21%) and France (19%), strongly agree they define themselves as feminists. They were followed by people from Sweden (17%), Spain (16%), United States (16%), Canada (15%), England (14%), Hungary (12%), Belgium (11%) and Australia (10%). Men are most likely to identify this way coming from South Korea (7%), Germany (3%) and Japan (3%).
Women are more likely to identify themselves as feminists than men in every country except Poland, where men (21%) are four points more likely than females (17%) strongly agree with the statement. In South Korea, there is no difference between men and women (7%) of this size.
Sexuality
The feminist view of sexuality varies, and differs according to the historical period and based on the cultural context. Feminist attitudes toward female sexuality have taken several different directions. Things like the sex industry, sexual representation in the media, and issues about approval for sex under conditions of male domination have been highly controversial among feminists. This debate has culminated in the late 1970s and 1980s, in what came to be known as feminist wars, which pitted anti-pornography feminism against sex-positive feminism, and parts of the feminist movement are deeply divided by these debates. Feminists have taken various positions on various aspects of the sexual revolution from the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1970s, a large number of influential women accepted lesbian and bisexual women as part of feminism.
Sex industry
Opinions about the sex industry vary. Feminists who are critical of the sex industry generally see it as an exploitative result of patriarchal social structure that reinforces the sexual and cultural attitudes involved in rape and sexual abuse. Alternatively, feminists who support at least some of the sex industry argue that it can be a medium of feminist expression and a means for women to control their sexuality.
The feminist view of pornography ranges from pornographic criticism as a form of violence against women, to embracing some forms of pornography as a medium of feminist expression. The feminist view of prostitution varies, but many of these perspectives can be loosely arranged into a generally well-desirable perspective or supportive of prostitution and sex work.
Affirming female sexual autonomy
For feminists, the right of women to control their own sexuality is a major issue. Feminists like Catharine MacKinnon argue that women have very little control over their own bodies, with female sexuality largely controlled and defined by men in patriarchal society. Feminists argue that sexual violence perpetrated by men is often rooted in the ideology of male sexual rights, and that this system gives women some legitimate options to resist sexual ascension. In many cultures, men do not believe that a woman has the right to reject men's sexual urges or to make autonomous decisions about participation in sex. Feminists argue that all cultures, in one way or another, are dominated by ideologies that largely deny women the right to decide how to express their sexuality, because men under patriarchy feel entitled to define sex in their own way. This right can take a different form, depending on the culture. In many parts of the world, especially in conservative and religious cultures, marriage is considered an institution that requires a wife to be available sexually, almost indefinitely; thus, forcing or forcing sex on a wife is not considered a crime or even a harsh behavior. In a more liberal culture, this right takes the form of the general sexuality of the whole culture. It is played out in a woman's sexual objectivity, with pornography and other forms of sexual entertainment that create a fantasy that all women exist solely for male sexual pleasure, and that women are available and want to engage in sex anytime, with men, man.
Science
Sandra Harding says that "the moral and political insights of the women's movement have inspired social scientists and biologists to ask critical questions about the ways traditional researchers have explained gender, sex, and relationships within and between the social and natural worlds." Some feminists, such as Ruth Hubbard and Evelyn Fox Keller, criticize traditional scientific discourse as a historical bias against a male perspective. Part of the feminist research agenda is the examination of ways in which the injustices of power are made or reinforced in scientific and academic institutions. Physicist Lisa Randall, was appointed to a task force at Harvard by president Lawrence Summers after his controversial discussion on why women may be underrepresented in science and engineering, said, "I just want to see more women enter the field so this problem does not have to come up again.
Lynn Hankinson Nelson notes that feminist empiricists have found a fundamental difference between men's and women's experiences. Thus, they seek to gain knowledge through the examination of women's experience, and to "uncover the consequences of omitting, misrepresenting, or devaluing them" to explain human experiences. Another part of the feminist research agenda is to uncover the ways in which the injustices of power are created or reinforced in society and in scientific and academic institutions. Moreover, although calls for greater attention must be paid to the structure of gender inequalities in academic literature, structural analysis of gender bias rarely appears in highly quoted psychology journals, especially in the field of psychology and personality studied in general.
One critique of feminist epistemology is that it allows social and political values ​​to influence its findings. Susan Haack also points out that feminist epistemology reinforces traditional stereotypes of women's thinking (as intuitive and emotional, etc.); Meera Nanda further warned that this might actually trap women in "traditional gender roles and help justify patriarchy".
Biology and gender
Modern feminism challenges the essentialist view of gender as intrinsic biologically. For example, Anne Fausto-Sterling's book, Sex Myths , explores the assumptions contained in scientific research that support a biological essential view of gender. In Gender Delusions, Cordelia Fine debates scientific evidence showing that there are innate biological differences between men's and women's thoughts, asserting that cultural and community beliefs are the reason for differences between individuals who are generally considered. as a gender difference.
Feminist psychology
Feminism in psychology emerges as a critique of the dominant male view on psychological research in which only the male perspective is studied with all male subjects. When women hold doctoral degrees in psychology, women and their problems are introduced as legitimate study topics. Feminist psychology emphasizes social context, life experience, and qualitative analysis. Projects like Voice of Feminist Psychology have emerged to catalog the influence of feminist psychologists on the discipline.
Culture
Architecture
Gender-based inquiry and architectural conceptualization have also taken place, leading to feminism in modern architecture. Piyush Mathur coined the term "archigenderic". Claiming that "architectural planning has an inseparable relationship by defining and organizing gender roles, responsibilities, rights, and limitations", Mathur raises the term "to explore... the meaning of 'architecture' in terms of gender" and "to explore the meaning of 'gender 'in terms of architecture'.
Business
Feminist activists have established feminist businesses, including women's bookstores, feminist credit unions, feminist pressures, mail-order feminist catalogs, and feminist restaurants. These businesses developed as part of the second and third wave of feminism in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s.
Visual art
In keeping with the general development in feminism, and often including self-regulation tactics as an awareness-raising group, the movement began in 1960 and grew throughout the 1970s. Jeremy Strick, director of the Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles, describes the feminist art movement as "the most influential international movement of anything during the postwar period", and Peggy Phelan says that "brings the most transformation in both art and writing art over the past four decades". The feminist artist Judy Chicago, who created the Dinner Party, a set of vulvar-themed ceramic dishes in the 1970s, said in 2009 for ARTnews, "There is still an institutional lag and insistence on Eurocentric male narrative We are trying to change the future: to make girls and boys realize that women's art is not an exception - this is a normal part of art history. "The feminist approach to art has recently evolved through Cyberfeminism and the turn of posthuman, to vote on the ways "contemporary female artists deal with gender, social media and the idea of ​​embodiment".
Literature
The feminist movement produces feminist and non-fictional fiction, and creates a renewed interest in women's writings. It also encourages the general reevaluation of women's historical and academic contributions in response to the belief that women's lives and contributions have been underrepresented as areas of scientific interest. Much of the early period of feminist literary scholarship was given to the rediscovery and reclamation of texts written by women. Studies such as Dale Spender Mother of Novel (1986) and Jane Spencer The Rise of Women Novelis (1986) are ground-breaking in their insistence that women always write. In line with this growth in scientific interest, various emphases began the task of reissuing the long-printed text. Virago Press began publishing a large list of the 19th and early 20th-century novels in 1975 and became one of the first commercial presses to join in the reclamation project. In the 1980s Pandora Press, who was responsible for publishing Spender research, issued a companion line from an 18th-century novel written by women. Recently, Broadview Press continues to issue the 18th and 19th century novels, many of which are up until now out of print, and the University of Kentucky has a series of republications of women's novels. The Justification of Women's Rights (1792) by Mary Wollstonecraft, was one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy. A Room of Yourself (1929) by Virginia Woolf, noted in the argument for both literal and figural literature for women writers in literary traditions dominated by patriarchy.
Widespread interest in women's literature is linked to general reassessment and expansion of the literary canon. Interest in post-colonial literature, gay and lesbian literature, writing by colored people, writing working people, and cultural production from other historically marginalized groups have resulted in large-scale expansions of what is considered "literature", and genres to now not considered as "literature", such as writing children, journals, letters, writing trips, and many others are now subjects of scientific interest. Most genres and subgenres have undergone similar analyzes, so there are now working on "female gothic" or female fiction.
According to Elyce Rae Helford, "Science fiction and fantasy serve as an important vehicle for feminist thinking, especially as a bridge between theory and practice." Feminist science fiction is sometimes taught at the university level to explore the role of social construction in understanding gender. These famous texts are Ursula K. Le Guin's The Left Hand of Darkness (1969), Joanna Russ' The Female Man (1970), Octavi Butler's Kindred (1979) and Margaret Atwood Handmaid's Tale (1985).
Music
Female music (or womyn music or wimmin music) is music by women, women and women. The genre emerges as a musical expression of the second wave of feminist movements as well as the labor movement, civil rights, and peace. This movement was started by lesbians like Cris Williamson, Meg Christian, and Margie Adam, African-American women activists such as Bernice Johnson Reagon and her group Sweet Honey in the Rock, and peace activist Holly Near. Women's music also refers to the broader female music industry that goes beyond performing artists to include studio musicians, producers, sound engineers, technicians, cover artists, distributors, promoters and festival organizers as well as women. Riot grrrl is an underground feminist punk movement depicted in the cultural movement section of this article.
Feminism became the music's main concern in the 1980s as part of the New Musicology. Prior to this, in the 1970s, music experts began to discover composers and female players, and began reviewing canon concepts, genius, genre and periodization from a feminist perspective. In other words, the question of how female musicians fit into the history of traditional music is now being asked. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, this trend continued as music experts such as Susan McClary, Marcia Citron, and Ruth Solie began to consider cultural reasons for marginalizing women from accepted work entities. Concepts such as music as gender discourse; professionalism; acceptance of female music; examination of music production sites; relative wealth and education of women; the study of popular music in relation to the identity of women; patriarchal ideas in musical analysis; and understanding of gender and difference is one of the themes examined so far.
While the music industry has long been open to having women in show or entertainment roles, women tend to have positions of authority, such as being an orchestra leader. In popular music, while there are many female singers who record songs, there are very few women behind the audio console who act as music producers, individuals who direct and manage the recording process.
Movies
Feminist theaters, advocating or illustrating feminist perspectives, arose primarily with the development of feminist film theory in the late 60s and early 70s. Women who were radical during the 1960s by political debates and sexual liberation; but the failure of radicalism to produce substantive change for women encouraged them to form conscious awakening groups and began to analyze, from a different point of view, the dominant female film construction. The differences are mainly marked between feminists on both sides of the Atlantic. 1972 saw the first feminist film festivals in the US and UK as well as the first feminist film journals, Women and Movies . Trailblazers from this period included Claire Johnston and Laura Mulvey, who also hosted Women's Events at the Edinburgh Film Festival. Other theorists made a strong impact on feminist films including Teresa de Lauretis, Anneke Smelik and Kaja Silverman. Approaches in philosophy and psychoanalysis sparked criticism of feminist films, independent feminist films and feminist distribution.
It has been argued that there are two different approaches to the making of independent and theoretically inspired feminist films. 'Deconstruction' is concerned with analyzing and undermining mainstream cinema codes, which aim to create a distinct relationship between the dominant audience and cinema. The second approach, a feminist counter-culture, embodies the feminine writings to investigate a special feminine cinematic language. Some of the latest criticisms of the "film feminist" approach have centered around the Swedish rating system called the Bechdel test.
During the heyday of the 1930s 1950s in big Hollywood studios, the status of women in the industry was very bad and, while many have improved, many have argued that much remains to be done. From art films by Sally Potter, Catherine Breillat, Claire Denis and Jane Campion to action films by Kathryn Bigelow, women now have a stronger voice, but are only aware of the remaining gender gaps.
Politics
Feminism has a complex interaction with major political movements in the 20th century.
Socialism
Since the late nineteenth century some feminists have been allied with socialism, while others have criticized the socialist ideology for not worrying about women's rights. August Bebel, an early activist of the German Social Democratic Party (SPD), published his work Die Frau und der Sozialismus, juxtaposing the struggle for equal rights between sex and social equality in general. In 1907 there was the International Socialist Women's Conference in Stuttgart where the right to vote was described as a class struggle tool. Clara Zetkin of the SPD called for women's suffrage to establish a "socialist order, the only possible one for a radical solution to the question of women".
In England, the women's movement is allied to the Labor party. In the US, Betty Friedan emerged from a radical background to take leadership. Radical Women is the oldest socialist feminist organization in the US and still active. During the Spanish Civil War, Dolores IbÃÆ'¡rruri ( La Pasionaria ) led the Spanish Communist Party. Although he supported the same rights for women, he opposed women who fought on the front lines and clashed with Mujeres Libres anarchist-feminists.
The Irish feminists of the early twentieth century included the Irish revolutionary republic, Constance Markievicz's voting rights and socialist who in 1918 was the first woman elected to the British House of Commons. However, in line with Sinn FÃÆ'Â © in abstainist policy, he will not take his seat in the House of Commons. He was re-elected to the Second DÃÆ'¡il in the 1921 election. He is also a commander of the Irish Citizen Army led by the socialist & amp; self-described feminist, Irish leader James Connolly during 1916 Easter Rising.
Fascism
Fascism has established a dubious attitude about feminism by practitioners and by women's groups. Among other demands relating to social reforms presented in the Fascist manifesto in 1919 was the expansion of suffrage for all Italian citizens aged 18 years and over, including women (achieved only in 1946, after the defeat of fascism) and eligibility for all to run from the age of 25. This demand was primarily championed by special Fascist female assisting groups such as fasci femminilli and only partly realized in 1925, under pressure from more conservative coalition partners from Prime Minister Benito Mussolini.
Cyprian Blamires stated that although feminists were among those who opposed Adolf Hitler's rise, feminism had a complicated relationship with the Nazi movement as well. While the Nazis glorified the traditional understanding of patriarchal society and its role for women, they claimed to recognize women's equality in employment. However, Hitler and Mussolini declared themselves opposed to feminism, and after the emergence of Nazism in Germany in 1933, there was a rapid dissolution of political rights and economic opportunities fought for feminists during the pre-war period and to some extent. during the 1920s. Georges Duby et al. note that in practice, fascist society is hierarchical and emphasizes male masculinity, with women retaining positions that are largely underneath. Blamires also notes that Neofascism since the 1960s is hostile to feminism and supports that women accept their "traditional role".
Civic rights and anti-racism movement
The civil rights movement has influenced and informed feminist movements and vice versa. Many Western feminists adapt the language and theory of black equality activism and draw parallels between women's rights and the rights of non-white people. Although there is a connection between the women's and civil rights movements, some tensions arose during the late 1960s and early 1970s when white women argued that feminism dominated the white and middle classes, and did not understand and care less about race issues. Similarly, some women argue that the civil rights movement has sexist elements and does not adequately address the concerns of minority women. These criticisms create new feminist social theories of racial, class, and sexism, and new feminism, such as black feminism and Chicana feminism.
Neoliberalism
Neoliberalism has been criticized by feminist theory because it has a negative effect on the female labor population around the world, especially in the global south. Masculine assumptions and goals continue to dominate economic and geopolitical thinking. The experience of women in non-industrialized countries reveals the often damaging effects of modernization policies and undermines orthodox claims that development benefits everyone.
Proponents of neoliberalism theorize that by increasing the participation of women in the workforce there will be increased economic progress, but feminist critics have noted that this participation alone is no further equality in gender relations. Neoliberalism has failed to address important issues such as the devaluation of the feminine workers, the structural features of men and masculinity, and the politicization of women's subordination in the family and workplace. "Feminization of work" refers to the conceptual characterization of deteriorating and undesired, meaningful, safe and secure working conditions. Entrepreneurs in the southern part of the world have a perception of feminine workers and look for workers who are considered not easy, benign and willing to receive low wages. The social construction of the feminine workforce has played a major role in this, for example, entrepreneurs often perpetuate the notion of women as' secondary income earners to justify their lower wage rates and unfit for training or promotion.
Social impact
The feminist movement has influenced changes in Western society, including women's suffrage; greater access to education; wages similar to men; the right to initiate divorce proceedings; the right of women to make individual decisions about pregnancy (including access to contraception and abortion); and the right to own property.
Civil rights
Since the 1960s, campaigns for women's rights have been filled with mixed results in the US and Britain. Other countries of the EEC agree to ensure that discriminatory laws are removed throughout the European Community.
Some feminist campaigns also help reform the attitudes toward child sexual abuse. The view that young girls cause men to have sexual intercourse with them is replaced by men's responsibility for their own behavior, men become adults.
In the US, the National Women's Organization (NOW) began in 1966 to seek women's equality, including through the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which did not pass, even though some countries enforced it themselves. The reproductive rights in the United States are centered on court decisions at Roe v.
The division of labor in the household is influenced by the increase of women's entry into the workplace in the 20th century. Sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild finds that, in two career partners, men and women, on average, spend the same amount of work time, but women still spend more time on housework, although Cathy Young responds by stating that women can prevent equal participation by men in domestic work and parenthood. Judith K. Brown writes: "Women are most likely to contribute substantially when subsistence activity has the following characteristics: the participants are not required to be away from home, the tasks are relatively monotonous and do not require full concentration, and the work is not harmful, interruptions, and easily interrupted once again. "
In international law, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is an international convention adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations and described as an international law on women's rights. It came into force in the countries that ratified it.
Jurisprudence
Feminist jurisprudence is a branch of jurisprudence that examines the relationship between women and the law. It answers questions about the history of legal and social bias towards women and about improving their legal rights.
Feminist jurisprudence signifies a reaction to the philosophical approach of modern law scholars, who usually see law as a process for interpreting and perpetuating the universal, gender-minded ideals of society. Feminist law experts claim that this fails to recognize women's values ​​or legal interests or hazards they can anticipate or experience.
Language
Neutral-gender language supporters argue that the use of gender-specific languages ​​often implies male superiority or reflects an unequal society. According to the The Handbook of English Linguistics, the common masculine pronouns and gender-specific job titles are examples of "where English conventions have historically treated humans as prototypes of human species."
Merriam-Webster chose "feminism" as "Word of the Year" in 2017, noting that "Word of the Year is an interesting quantitative measure in a particular word."
Theology
Feminist theology is a movement that reconsiders traditions, practices, scriptures, and religious theology from a feminist perspective. Some of the aims of feminist theology include enhancing the role of women among scholars and religious authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and language about God, determining women's place in relation to career and motherhood, and studying women's images in sacred texts of religion..
Christian feminism is a branch of feminist theology that seeks to interpret and understand Christianity in light of the equality of women and men, and that this interpretation is necessary for a complete understanding of Christianity. Although there is no standard of belief among Christian feminists, most agree that God does not discriminate on the basis of sex, and engages in issues such as female ordination, male domination and parental balance in Christian marriage, claims of moral deprivation and low self-esteem of women with men, and the overall care of women in the church. The Christian Bible refers to women in positions of authority in Judges 4: 4 and Kings 22:14.
Islamic feminists advocate women's rights, gender equality, and social justice based on the Islamic framework. Advocates seek to highlight the deep-rooted teachings of equality in the Qur'an and encourage the question of patriarchal interpretation of Islamic teachings through the Qur'an, hadith (sayings of Muhammad), and shari'ah (the law) towards the creation of a more equitable and just society. Although rooted in Islam, the pioneers of this movement have also used secular and Western feminist discourses and recognize the role of Islamic feminism as part of an integrated global feminist movement.
Buddhist feminism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious, legal, and social status of women in Buddhism. This is an aspect of feminist theology that seeks to promote and understand the equality of men and women morally, socially, spiritually, and leadership from a Buddhist perspective. Buddhist feminist Rita Gross describes Buddhist feminism as "the radical practice of women's and men's co-humanity."
Jewish Feminism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious, legal, and social status of women in Judaism and opens new opportunities for religious experience and leadership for Jewish women. The main issues for early Jewish feminists in these movements were the exclusion of all male or female prayer groups, the exceptions of the positive time-bound mitzvot , and the inability of women to serve as a witness and to start a divorce. Many Jewish women have been the leaders of the feminist movement throughout their history.
Dianic Wicca is a feminist-centered theology.
Secular or atheist feminists have engaged in feminist criticism of religion, arguing that many religions have oppressive rules against women and misogynous themes and elements in religious texts.
Patriarchy
Patriarchy is a social system in which society is organized around male authority figures. In this system fathers have authority over women, children, and property. It implies a male governmental institution and privilege, and depends on the subordination of women. Most forms of feminism characterize patriarchy as an unjust social system that oppresses women. Carole Pateman argues that the patriarchal distinction "between masculinity and femininity is the political distinction between freedom and submission." In feminist theory, the concept of patriarchy often includes all the social mechanisms that reproduce and exert male dominance over women. Feminist theory usually characterizes patriarchy as a social construct, which can be overcome by expressing and critically analyzing its manifestations. Some radical feminists have proposed that because patriarchy is too rooted in society, separatism is the only viable solution. Other feminists criticize these views as anti-men.
Men and masculinity
Feminist theory has explored the social construction of masculinity and its implications for the purpose of gender equality. The social construction of masculinity is seen by feminism as problematic because it associates men with aggression and competition, and strengthens patriarchal and unequal gender relationships. The culture of patriarchy is criticized for "restricting forms of masculinity" available to men and thus narrowing their choices of life. Some feminists are involved with the activism of men's issues, such as bringing attention to male rape and batteries and overcoming negative social expectations for men.
The participation of men in feminism is generally encouraged by feminists and is seen as an important strategy for achieving full community commitment to gender equality. Many male and pro-feminist feminists are active in women's rights activism, feminist theory, and masculine studies. However, some argue that while male involvement with feminism is necessary, it is problematic because of the social influence of patriarchy in an ingrained gender relationship. The current consensus in feminist and masculine theories is that men and women should work together to achieve a greater feminist goal. It has been proposed that, in large part, this can be achieved through the consideration of women's institutions.
Reaction
Different groups of people have responded to feminism, and both men and women have been among their supporters and critics. Among
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