Marine aquarium

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A marine aquarium is an aquarium that stores marine plants and animals in the contained environment. Marine aquariums are further divided by hobbyists into fish only ( FO ), fish only with live stones ( FOWLR ), and coral aquariums. Fish only tanks often feature large or aggressive marine fish species and generally rely on mechanical and chemical filtration. FOWLR and coral tanks use live stones, materials composed of coral skeletons that store beneficial nitrogenous waste-treating bacteria, as a more natural biological filtering device.

Sea fishing is different from the freshwater counterparts due to the fundamental differences in the saltwater constitution and the resulting differences in the adaptation of its inhabitants. Stable marine aquariums require more equipment than freshwater systems, and generally require more stringent water quality monitoring. Marine aquarium populations are often hard to come by and are usually more expensive than residents of freshwater aquariums. However, saltwater aquarium inhabitants are usually much more spectacular than freshwater aquarium fish.

Video Marine aquarium

Sejarah fishkeeping kelautan

The first seawater tank is a Venetian glass jar where the Romans keep anemons outdoors, but the system is very short.

The Aztec Empire has 10 saltwater aquariums in Texcoco.

In 1846, Anna Thynne kept rocks and seagrass for almost three years, and was credited with being the first creator of a balanced ocean aquarium in London.

The maintenance of saltwater fish began on a wider scale in the 1950s, starting with a basic rectangular glass aquarium (typically 20 gallons), still popular today. White reefs along with a substrate of crude corals are the norm. Algae, including beneficial types such as coralline algae, are considered negative and are generally discarded. A clean and sterile tank is seen as the healthiest.

During the early days of marine aquariums, saltwater was collected on the local coast. Natural salt water contains many unwanted organisms and pollutants. The time literature aquarium shows that the most commonly sought-after marine fish are percula clown fish, large damselfish sardines, small, sea water bits and scats, gem blennies, and blue damsels. The aquarium is equipped with a large air compressor, and is very aerated and screened (especially with an undergravel filter, the norm for some time).

A growing number of hobbyists are experiencing the inconvenience of collecting natural seawater and the simultaneous development of analytical chemical techniques leading to research into the chemical composition of seawater. A synthetic salt blend was developed to replicate the tropical marine chemical environment, including elements and salts. These advances make sea fishkeeping popular in areas with no access to clean seawater.

Airflow propellers, reverse flow proteins, and reliable submersible electric heaters are found in Germany. Advances in filtering include trickle filters and hang-ons, both allowing a more natural balance in the aquarium environment. Advances in fluorescent lighting technology to provide higher output, along with metal halide lighting, enable the first coral tank, making it possible to keep corals and other invertebrates without natural sunlight.

More efficient chemical testing allows aquarists to understand the chemical properties of the aquarium. In the 1980s, a biologically based understanding of how to preserve artificial marine environments led to more successful and extensive marine catches.

Maps Marine aquarium

Modern fishkeeping

Marine aquarium components

The main component is an aquarium, usually made of glass or acrylic, filtration equipment, lighting, and aquarium heating. Marine aquariums can range from less than 80 liters, (& lt; 20 US gal) to over 1,200 liters (300 US gal). Small volumes are harder to maintain due to faster chemical water changes. Most marine aquariums are between 160 and 400 liters (40 and 100 gal US).

Type of marine aquarium

Marine aquarists usually divide a saltwater aquarium into their fish only housing, they are residential fish with live stones, and they are primarily designed for reef houses and other invertebrates (also known as coral aquariums). Many fish fans also share a type of saltwater tank based on the temperature of the water in which they are stored.

Tropical sea

The most common types of saltwater fish tanks, tropical marine tanks, marine animal houses from tropical climates. Usually stored between 24 and 28 Â ° C (75 to 82 Â ° F), this tank includes a tropical coral tank, as well as a fish tank only. These tanks tend to have low concentrations of microscopic plankton and other foods eaten by filter feeders. Most cattle for this aquarium are obtained through commercial means. Temperate marine (coldwater_marine) Temperate marine

One of the more unclear types of fish tanks, the cold-water tank, accommodates temperate fish, with temperatures ranging from 10 to 24 Â ° C (50 to 75 Â ° F). Colorful species such as swordfish, blennies and sea-filled anemones can be found. Anemones and invertebrates in temperate waters are easy to compete with their tropical counterparts. The most colorful species found in the western Pacific and the west coast of North America. This tank treatment is similar to maintaining a fish tank only with live stones, or non-photosynthetic tropical aquariums.

Significant species diversity exists. Since cold coral reefs occur only at very deep depths, most hobbyists are mostly confined to fish, sea anemones, crustaceans, echinoderms, molluscs, and duster worms. Some corals can be found at low depths. Because very few commercially available freshwater fish and invertebrates, hobbyists usually have to physically obtain specimens, although more recently the specimens have been commercially available from the west coast of the United States as well as Japan, Australia and the UK. The most common acquisition method is by trolling or seining, and experienced hobbyists use tidal movements and search methods to find specific species. Unlike commercially available tropical fish, whose patterns of behavior and compatibility have been well documented in the past five or six decades, cold-water fish have been kept in public and private aquariums for more than two centuries and much ichthyological knowledge has been collected to sustain them..

Many temperate fish have specific local dietary needs, while others will eat almost all crustacean or frozen foods. Some fish should not be kept with fish small enough to get into their mouths, crabs or molluscs. Similarly some crabs can not be stored with some mollusks, while other fish, crabs, molluscs and echinoderms may be compatible with each other. Experience is required before one can successfully measure the compatibility of fish and invertebrates in a person's area. Because it is a local hobby in the United States, not many people go to local tank routes that are much more popular in Europe.

Live rock

Living rocks are rocks that have existed in the ocean, composed of limestone and rotting coral skeletons, usually around coral reefs such as around Fiji, and usually covered with beneficial algae, corbeal invertebrates and small invertebrates and desirable bacteria inside aquarium.. Some examples of microfauna commonly found in living stones are crabs, snails, feather dust, brittle stars, starfish, limpets, abalone, and occasional sea urchins, sea anemones, coral, and sea sponges. Also, if the aquarist is unlucky, the shrimp is mantis. Bristleworms are also common, mostly, though unattractive, harmless and are useful scavengers; some species may become pests. The addition of live stone is one of the best ways to ensure a healthy aquarium, since the rocks provide buffers to maintain high pH (8.0-8.3), alkalinity, and acid neutralizing capacity. Alkalinity is often known by somewhat confusing terms, "carbonate hardness", or KH. This is usually measured in "degrees" (dKH) or meq/L.

Mikrofauna found in living stones are detrivores and herbivores (because they eat algae and fish poop), and provide fish with a natural and interesting shelter. Live rock usually comes from online dealers as "not preserved", and must be quarantined in a separate tank while undergoing a preservation process, which involves the inevitable death of some stone dwellers and subsequent production of unwanted ammonia and nitrite. Recovered live stone is available in most pet stores serving saltwater. The living sand is similar to a living stone and is equally desirable.

Sometimes fans use the so-called "dry rocks", which are only long lived stones that have been allowed to dry and lose most of the inhabitants alive, to keep unwanted pests out of their aquariums, and as a cheap alternative to living rocks.

Filtration

In general, marine aquariums have a more complex filtration requirement than most freshwater aquariums. Various components often include wet and dry filters and protein skimmers. Skimmer protein is a device that removes organic compounds before its degradation, and is very useful in marine aquariums. Skimming protein is also used in the popular Berlin method that relies on live rock and partial periodic water changes to decrease and dispose of waste products. The Berlin method requires a large number of living rocks in the aquarium. The rule of thumb is 1/2-1 pounds per 1 gallon US (0.2-0.4 kg per 4 liters).

Some marine aquariums include containers, which are external containers that connect to the main aquarium with water pumps. In most of the setup, the sump lies beneath the aquarium and is fed water from the main tank through overflow. A simplest outflow is a circular hole drilled into the top of the tank, connected through a pipe to the output below it. When the water level rises through the water's overflowing height, the water "floods" the tank and falls into the sump below. The water circulation is supported by a water pump on the sump, which pushes water back into the tank, thus causing more water to flow and perpetuating the cycle. There are many advantages to using bah, both for the appearance and the health of the tank. Bah provides help to the tank reservoir, as it allows filtration and maintenance equipment (protein skimmer, heater, activated carbon) so as not to be seen from the main tank. It also ensures that the water level of the main aquarium never changes, as the overflow determines the water level in the main tank. The tank helps health by helping to oxidize water by increasing the amount of water/air surface used for gas exchange.

Some marine aquariums also include refugium. Refugium is a small container or aquarium hidden behind or under the main aquarium and connected to it through a water pump (often in a similar way to sump). Refugium has recently become very popular among aquarious reefs as they can be used to serve multiple purposes such as adding water volumes or providing fish-free sites for biological filtration in live and/or sandbed stones. Refugees are free to accommodate copepods, amphipods, isopods, and other zooplankton populations.

Exposure

Cyclic lighting is commonly used in aquariums to simulate day and night. It is beneficial for fish and invertebrates for forming routines, allowing them to rest, and making them feel more secure. In addition to building routines, high output lighting is required for many invertebrates such as corals and anemones to survive. Lighting in a sea tank containing only live fish and stones is not an important issue. However, in aquariums containing invertebrates, where algae growth (from live and symbiotic algae) is desired, more intense lighting is required. Various light sources include but are not limited to: natural sunlight, fluorescent, VHO fluorescent, T-5 fluorescent, compact fluorescent, LED and metal halide. Each type of lighting has its own advantages and disadvantages. They all vary in initial costs, maintenance costs, available spectrum, long life, efficiency, and power.

Natural sunlight

The most primitive source of lighting is natural sunlight. This is only effective in areas near the equator due to the greatest intensity of sunlight there. Efficiently exploiting natural sunlight requires complex planning and, as such, this method is applied only to the largest reef systems. Many times in natural sunshine hobby is actually avoided because of the low light spectrum it has. Yellow color is often undesirable and is believed to induce algae problems, although research shows no.

Incandescent

The incandescent lamp has been removed for years. They waste energy, generating between 15 and 30 lumens per watt of power (from a possible 683 lumens per watt for an ideal light source). They can be found many times in the light shades of older aquariums. They often burn, extinguish a lot of heat, and usually do not have the right spectrum associated with them. Most incandescent lamps can be replaced with screws that are normally available and efficient in compact bulbs.

Fluorescent standard

The standard fluorescent tube is a common bar light that you find on a commercial ceiling. Fluorescent lamps have more color temperatures more suited to aquariums than incandescent bulbs. They are also more efficient than incandescent bulbs, averaging between 90 and 95 lumens per watt. The downside of ordinary fluorescent lights is that they do not have the intensity to penetrate into deeper aquariums.

High yield fluorescent

There are several variations of fluorescent technology enhanced. The main is the very high output (VHO), compact compact fluorescent (PC), and T-5 high output (HO).

The VHO fluorescent lamp runs at a higher power level, usually about three times the standard wattage for a specific bulb length. They have the advantage of high light output, but larger diameter bulbs limit the efficiency of the reflector and the number of bulbs that can fit in the aquarium hood.

PC lighting is also a high-power fluorescent lamp, but the tubes are thinner and often folded to each other to reduce size. Most commercially available spiral energy-saving bulbs for home lighting are electric-powered fluorescent lamps. PC bulbs are recommended to be replaced every six months to a year to maintain the desired light spectrum.

The T-5 HO lamp is the latest variation on fluorescent lamps. They run at a slightly higher power level than standard fluorescent lamps, but are made significantly thinner than standard fluorescent lamps, allowing for a more efficient reflector design that gets more light into the aquarium. High quality T-5 systems often match or exceed the output of compact fluorescent lamps or equivalent VHO lighting fixtures. On the downside, T-5 lighting is the most expensive type of fluorescent lamp available. Many times it is much cheaper per watt, especially in the long run with some replaced T-5 lamps, to use the equivalent metal halide light arrangement over a T-5 setting if high light output is required.

All types of fluorescent lamps offer the same efficiency in lumens per watt; it is the shape of a light bulb and reflector that makes the overall output different.

Metal halide

Metal halide lamps are generally the highest commercially available lighting output. They produce about 90-100 lumens per watt of power. It's about the same as the fluorescent. The increase in metal halides is that they concentrate this light output into a very small space, while fluorescent lights evenly illuminate the entire aquarium. This is often referred to as point source lighting, and this is what causes the visual effects of ripples in many advanced aquarium settings. This light output concentration increases the intensity, allowing metal halide lamps to penetrate the light up to even the lowest level of most aquariums. Metal halides are available in many color temperatures, from 6500 K to 20,000 K, although tubers as high as 50,000K are sometimes found. The disadvantage of metal halide lighting is the initial cost and heat generated.

Most metal halide fixtures are more expensive than fluorescent systems, but are required for some reef settings. Halide lamps concentrate heat as well as light output. The surface of the operating lamp becomes sufficiently hot to cause second or third level burns, so this lighting technology should be used with caution. The heat generated can also warm the aquarium to an unacceptable level, possibly requiring the use of a chiller for a particular aquarium setup.

LED

The latest addition to the list of aquarium lighting technology is LED lighting. It has the potential to be much more efficient than other technologies, but not fully developed. LEDs have the advantage of point source lighting, but can also be adjusted for most power levels. This allows for more advanced lighting schedules, simulation of cloud cover, or even lightning storms. So far, LEDs have been widely used primarily as moonlighting in commercial products.

Coral enthusiasts are also starting to build their own LED lights. The debate about their effectiveness on reefs can not yet be deduced, especially with regard to their ability to extract UV radiation, which is essential for obtaining an interesting color range that most people are interested in LED lighting.

LED lighting can be considered one of the most energy-efficient and low-impact options for reef tank lighting as well, with a projected seven-year life expectancy. LED lighting also helps replicate the natural look of sunlight as most LED lights produce shimmer lines like those found on natural reefs.

The number of transmitters or LED fixtures can vary greatly based on these and other factors; photosynthetic specimens stored, heat loss input energy, PAR light at a certain depth of aquarium water, and light spectrum (PUR) are used. The spectrum of light that most closely resembles a natural duplicate would be most efficient. These include blue light in the spectrum of approximately 410 m to 485 nm along with the white (daytime) spectrum from 6500K to 14000K. Warm white emitters with more yellow and green spectra should be avoided. The results can range from 0.8 watts per gallon to 1.5 watts per gallon from the average depth of the aquarium.

Overall lighting considerations

When considering lighting for an aquarium, there are generally two factors to consider: wattage and color temperature. Depending on the type of lighting (ie fluorescents, metal halide, etc.) Watt emitted light can vary greatly, from tens of watts to several hundred watts in the lighting system. Watt, though it does not show color, is equivalent to power and essentially determines how bright the light will shine. Because of the scattering of light in the water, the deeper a person's tank, the stronger the lighting is required. The color temperature, measured in kelvin (albeit slightly unequivocal) refers to the color of light emitted by the lamp and is based on the concept of black body radiation. The light from the sun has a color temperature of about 5900 K and the lighting system with color temperature & gt; 5000 K tends to be best for growing plants in both marine and freshwater environments. 10,000 K light looks bluish white and emphasizes the colors on fish and coral. Higher on the spectrum there are 14,000 K and 20,000 K lamps that produce a dark blue color that mimics the underlying lighting conditions, creating an optimal atmosphere for invertebrates and livestock.

Temperature control

Most marine aquarium inhabitants are endemic to tropical reefs and waters in Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Red Sea. The temperature of the marine aquarium should mimic the natural environment of the population and most often maintained at 23 to 28 Â ° C (73-82 Â ° F). In areas where the ambient temperature is less than the desired temperature of this aquarium usually requires the use of an aquarium heater. In some areas where the ambient temperature is greater than the desired temperature, or for cold water systems, refrigeration devices known as "cooling" are used to cool the aquarium water.

Water testing

Marine Aquarists generally test water in aquariums for a variety of water quality chemical indicators. These include:

• Specific gravity, the relative size of water density, is usually maintained between 1,020 and 1,024 in aquariums with fish only, and 1.023 and 1.026 for aquariums containing invertebrates.
• Salinity should therefore be between 28 and 35 ppt, with a higher value useful in sophisticated reef systems. Since salinity is by definition directly related to specific gravity, both can be tested with a cheap hydrometer or refractometer.
• The pH should be maintained between 8.1 and 8.3.
• Ammonia must be close to zero.
• Nitrite must be close to zero.
• Nitrate should be below 10 ppm, but near zero is best.
• The phosphate should be below 0.3 ppm.
• Alkalinity should be 3.2-4.5 meq/L. or 7 and 12 degrees of carbonate hardness (dKH).
• The copper concentration should be measured and not rise more than 0.15 ppm

The pH can be increased by a commercially available buffering agent or through a calcium rich substrate. The calibrated calcium reactor can help maintain pH and alkalinity. Using pure water from the reverse osmosis/deionization unit (RO/DI) can prevent KH and pH fluctuations.

The nitrogen cycle refers to the conversion of toxic ammonia to nitrite and ultimately nitrate. While fish feces (urine and faeces) and decomposing matter release ammonia, the majority of the released ammonia (about 60%) in marine and freshwater aquariums are directly excreted into the water from the gills of the fish. Biological nitrification (bacteria) converts ammonia into nitrite ions, NO ₂ -, and then into nitrate ions, NO ₃ -. Nitrate is easily taken and assimilated by algae and hermatypic corals. Some nitrate is converted through the process of anaerobic bacteria into free nitrogen, but this process is very difficult to maintain. In the past, most nitrates, which are less toxic to fish and most invertebrates than nitrite, accumulate in water until they are physically expelled by water changes. However, many marine aquarises now use a special part of a separate tank or tank, called "refugium." A refugium is, as the name implies, a sheltered area that shares water with the main tank, or display. Refugium usually contains deep sand beds to allow an anoxic zone to thrive in which anaerobic bacteria can convert nitrate into nitrogen gas, a useful way to remove nitrates. Different types of macroalgae can be grown and harvested from refugium as another way of nitrate exports. As refugium becomes more common in marine aquariums, nitrate levels are manageable even for novice hobbyists. Ammonia and nitrite should be tested regularly; detectable levels (ie, more than 0 ppm) may be an indication of the problem. Nitrates should not exceed 2 ppm in a coral tank, or 20 ppm in a fish tank. It is sometimes acceptable to have a small amount of nitrate buildup, as some livestock, especially fish, are quite tolerant of nitrate. Most corals, while capable of assimilating nitrate, can not be expected to survive, let alone flourish, with high nitrate concentrations.

Other recommended tests include tests for calcium, carbonate alkalinity, magnesium, and other trace elements. It is often beneficial (and necessary) for aquarist to examine the chemical water parameters for the desired specific organism.

Acclimatization

Acclimatization is a process done when adding new marine life to an aquarium, especially to invertebrates, which have no osmoregulation. This process slowly introduces the organism to the water composition of the new environment, preventing shocks resulting from sudden changes in water chemistry. There are several different methods for doing this, including the use of drip lines, or measuring cups or other devices to slowly mix water from an aquarium tank into a container with a new animal.

The dripping or dripping method is a safe and gentle way to introduce marine fish to a new home, and it is quite simple to do. This procedure can be used to suit all types of marine animals as well as fresh water. First, the fish is placed with all the water bags in a bucket or container of sufficient size to keep the fish covered with water, and the bucket is then placed on the floor next to the aquarium. Using some plastic air duct tubes and air gang valves, the siphon infusion line is set from the aquarium to the bucket. The water tank is allowed to drip slowly into the bucket, using the gang valve to adjust the droplet rate, until the water drips into the same bucket approximately two to three times the original volume of the bag water. After testing the pH, salinity, and water temperature in the bucket to see if this parameter matches the water of the tank, the fish is carefully removed and put in the tank.

Water changed

Changing water is a good principal of saltwater maintenance. Larger (about 200 US gallons (760Ã,L)) aquarium is much more stable and water changes may not be necessary if the nitrogen cycle has fully established itself in the tank, although this is a controversial statement among aquarists. Water changes are used to keep the balance of calcium, carbonic alkalinity and magnesium quickly depleted in the reef aquarium, while also maintaining the level of other trace elements as well as removing toxic solutes that can accumulate from various sources and can not be eliminated by even advanced filtration methods. Supplements are needed (such as calcium) when ordinary water changes alone are unable to maintain adequate levels, especially calcium, carbonate, and magnesium. Water changes involve taking a fraction of the total volume of the aquarium, replacing the water with freshly brewed pre-mixed water. Pre-mixed brines have been chlorinated and/or chlorinated - usually with additives such as bisulfite or by filtration. Water should be brought to the same temperature if more than 5% of the changes occur. Salinity should be appropriate to the aquarium, or given very slow doses if changing salinity. Aging and aeration of seawater (as in a bucket with powerhead or airstone) is recommended as a good practice to allow a stable pH.

Replacement water should be from the same source as the aquarium, whether it is reverse osmosis (RO), de-ionized (DI), distilled or from city supply, to avoid drastic changes in water chemistry. In the case where a person replaced a tap-based salt water mixture with a reverse osmotic-based salt mixture, the surrogate water should be added slowly for several hours to avoid sending the aquarium population into osmotic shock. However, large water changes are not recommended in routine circumstances, so this is completely irrelevant. Municipalities, or tap water, are not recommended for marine aquariums because they often contain nitrates, phosphates, and silicates and other dissolved solids that trigger the growth of algal disorders, especially diatoms, which appear as yellow powder algae and grow in the overflow of silicates present at all faucet water. Water filtered by a four-stage process including mechanical components, carbon, reverse-osmosis, and de-ionization is recommended because it can provide the easiest route to purely pure water. The four and five stage RO/DI filtering units can be obtained for only $ 100 and are a cost-effective tool for converting tap water into usable water in marine aquariums.

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Preservation

Almost all species stored in marine aquariums are currently caught in the wild, although tank-generated specimens are becoming increasingly common as viable alternatives. Only a few species such as clownfish are cultivated on a commercial scale. Many gatherings were conducted in Indonesia and the Philippines, where the use of cyanide and other destructive collection methods, while desperate, was unfortunately common. Most of the living rocks are also harvested in the wild, and recent restrictions on this harvest in Florida have led to a shift to Fijian and aquaculture rock. Natural stones, as they are made by polip corals, take years if not centuries to form, and are an important habitat for innumerable marine species; thus, commercial scale logging of natural living stones has been criticized by environmental conservationists. In addition, many animal species sold to hobbyists have very specific dietary and habitat requirements that can not be met by hobbyists (eg genus Labroides wrasses, moorish idol); these animals nearly died quickly and had significantly reduced lifespan compared to wild specimens. Often these specific environmental requirements lead to inappropriate color and appearance of luresock being poor. These issues are often underestimated by individuals and organizations with financial interests in the trade. Hobbyists who support conservation should only purchase certified fish (although ensuring the validity of such claims can be difficult) or catch fish, as well as planted corals and to support legitimate coral reef conservation efforts. The majority of corals can be "fragmented", in which some of the larger captive corals are separated and then can be elevated into individual specimens, allowing for the coral spreading in a domestic aquarium; fragment trade (ie fragments) offers a fantastic opportunity for marine aquarists to acquire new and unique corals while limiting their impact on the natural environment. Endangered species and those without a history of imprisonment should be avoided.

Commercial development

Businesses have marketed fishkeeping. With the emergence of large-scale business operations focusing on breeding a large number of specimens, the maintenance of marine fish has become much wider than before. Perhaps the biggest disincentive for marine fish farming, compared with fresh water, is the initial cost of installation. A coral reef 100 gallon (380Ã, L) full of coral and equipment can cost more than $ 2,500 US, although a home hobbyist who has a limited budget can spend less than half and still get satisfactory results.

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References

src: www.madhattersreef.com

Further reading

• Advanced Sea Aquarium Technique , by Jay Hemdal
• Aquarist Laut Konsisten , by Robert Fenner
• Invertebrates: Quick Reference Guide , by Julian Sprung
• Reef: Quick Reference Guide , by Julian Sprung
• Invertebrate Reef: An Essential Guide to Selection, Care and Compatibility , by Anthony Calfo and Robert Fenner
• Coral Aquarium: Selection, Animal Husbandry, and Natural History , by Eric H. Borneman.
• Natural Coral Aquarium: A Simple Approach to Creating Living Salt Water Mikrocosmos , by John H. Tullock
• The History of Smoking the Tropical Sea Fish in the United Kingdom 1960-1980 , by Gerald Jennings, John Clark, et al.

src: www.hollywoodfishfarm.co.nz

External links

• Pets: Fish and Aquaria: Marine at Curlie (based on DMOZ)
• RTAW Reefpedia, Reef Keeping wiki managed by Marine Aquarium Societies of Australia
• Reef Hobbyist Online, Reef Aquarium's electronic magazine with articles written by ocean aquarists
• Maritime FAQs, Frequently Asked Questions about general tank house housings
• Synthetic Seawaters for Aquaria and Laboratories, Calypso Publications (1979)
• The International Oceanographic Study Society of IMSS was formerly the Marine Waters Community Society of the MSAS of the United Kingdom, (1966-1970)

Source of the article : Wikipedia