Biodiesel refers to vegetable oils or animal fat-based fuels consisting of long alkyl esters (methyl, ethyl, or propyl). Biodiesel is usually made by chemically reacting lipids (eg, vegetable oils, soybean oils, animal fats (tallow)) with alcohols producing fatty acid esters.
Biodiesel is intended for use in standard diesel engines and thus differs from vegetable oils and wastes used for diesel fuel converted . Biodiesel can be used alone, or mixed with petrodiesel in any proportion. Biodiesel blends can also be used as heating oils.
The National Biodiesel Board (USA) also has a technical definition of "biodiesel" as a mono-alkyl ester.
Video Biodiesel
Blends
The conventional hydrocarbon-based biodiesel and diesel mix is ​​the most commonly distributed product for use in the retail diesel fuel market. Most of the world uses a system known as the "B" factor to state the amount of biodiesel in any fuel mixture:
- 100% biodiesel is referred to as B100
- 20% biodiesel, 80% petrodiesel labeled B20
- 5% biodiesel, 95% petrodiesel labeled B5
- 2% biodiesel, 98% petrodiesel labeled B2
Biodiesel mixtures of 20% and lower can be used in diesel equipment without, or only minor modifications, although certain manufacturers do not extend warranty coverage if equipment is damaged by this mixture. B6 for B20 blend is covered by ASTM D7467 specification. Biodiesel can also be used in pure form (B100), but may require modification of certain machines to avoid maintenance and performance problems. Blending B100 with petroleum diesel can be done by:
- Mix in the tank at the manufacturing point before shipping to the tank truck
- Splash mixing on a tanker truck (adding a certain percentage of biodiesel and solar petroleum)
- In-line mixing, two components arrived at the tanker truck simultaneously.
- Measurable pump mixing, petroleum diesel, and biodiesel meters are set to total X volume, attractive transfer pumps from two points and the finished mixture when leaving the pump.
Maps Biodiesel
Apps
Biodiesel can be used in pure form (B100) or it can be mixed with petroleum diesel at any concentration in most diesel engine injection pumps. The new high-pressure general rail machine (29,000 psi) has a strict factory limit of B5 or B20, depending on the manufacturer. Biodiesel has a different solvent properties than petrodiesel, and will decrease natural rubber gaskets and hoses in vehicles (most vehicles manufactured before 1992), although these tend to wear out naturally and will most likely have been replaced with FKM, which is not reactive to biodiesel. Biodiesel has been known to break up residual sediments in the fuel line where petrodiesel has been used. As a result, the fuel filter may become clogged with particulates if a rapid transition to a pure biodiesel is made. Therefore, it is recommended to change the fuel filter on the engine and heater shortly after first switching to the biodiesel mixture.
Distribution
Since the passage of the Energy Policy Act of 2005, the use of biodiesel has increased in the United States. In the UK, the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation requires suppliers to enter 5% of renewable fuels in all transportation fuels sold in the UK in 2010. For diesel roads, this effectively means 5% biodiesel (B5).
Vehicle use and manufacturer acceptance
In 2005, Chrysler (then part of DaimlerChrysler) released the CRD Jeep Liberty diesel from the factory to the European market with a 5% biodiesel blend, indicating at least partial acceptance of biodiesel as an acceptable diesel fuel additive. In 2007, DaimlerChrysler showed its intention to increase warranty coverage to 20% biodiesel blends if the quality of biofuel in the United States can be standardized.
The Volkswagen Group has released a statement indicating that some of its vehicles are compatible with B5 and B100 made from rape seed oil and are compatible with EN 14214 standards. The use of the specified biodiesel type in its car will not void any warranty.
Mercedes Benz does not allow diesel fuel to contain more than 5% biodiesel (B5) due to concerns about "production shortages". Any damage caused by the use of unapproved fuel will not be covered by the Mercedes-Benz Limited Warranty.
Beginning in 2004, the city of Halifax, Nova Scotia decided to update its bus system to enable the city bus fleet to operate fully with fish-based biodiesel. This caused some initial mechanical problems, but after several years of distillation, the entire fleet had been successfully converted.
In 2007, McDonald's of UK announced it would begin producing biodiesel from waste by-products from its restaurant. This fuel will be used to run the fleet.
The 2014 Chevy Cruze Clean Turbo Diesel, directly from the plant, will be rated up to B20 (a mixture of 20%/80% common diesel biodiesel) biodiesel compatibility
Train usage
British Train Company Virgin Trains claims to have run the first "train biodiesel" in the UK, which is converted to run on 80% petrodiesel and 20% biodiesel.
The British Royal Railway on September 15, 2007 completed the first run on 100% of biodiesel fuel supplied by Green Fuels Ltd. Prince Charles and the managing director of Green Fuels James Hygate are the first passengers on a train fully fueled by biodiesel fuel. Since 2007, the Royal Railway has been operating successfully at B100 (100% biodiesel).
Similarly, the state-owned railway in eastern Washington runs a 25% bioodiesel/75% petrodiesel mixture test during the summer of 2008, purchasing fuel from biodiesel producers located along the railroad tracks. Trains will be supported by biodiesel made partly from canola grown in agricultural areas through which the short line runs.
Also in 2007, Disneyland began running a park train on B98 (98% biodiesel). The program was discontinued in 2008 due to storage issues, but in January 2009, it was announced that the park will run all trains on biodiesel made from used cooking oil itself. This is a change from running a rail on soy-based biodiesel.
In 2007, the Mountain was historic. Washington Cog Railway added the first biodiesel locomotive to its all-steam locomotive fleet. The Fleet has climbed the western slope of Mount Washington in New Hampshire since 1868 with a vertical climb peak of 37.4 degrees.
On July 8, 2014, the Minister of Railways of India D.V. Sadananda Gowda announced in the Railway Budget that 5% of bio-diesel will be used in India's Diesel Engine.
Flight use
A test flight has been carried out by a fully biodiesel-powered Czech jet aircraft. Recent jet flights using biofuels, however, have been using other types of renewable fuels.
On 7 November 2011 United Airlines flew the world's first commercial aviation flight on biofuels derived from microbes using Solajet (TM), a renewable jet fuel originating from Solazyme's algae. The Boeing 737-800 Eco-skies aircraft is fueled by 40 percent Solajet and 60 percent of jet fuel derived from petroleum. The 1403 Eco-skies commercial flight departs from IAH Houston airport at 10:30 am and lands at Chicago's ORD airport at 13:03.
In September 2016, the Dutch flag carrier KLM contracted AltAir Fuels to supply all KLM flights departing from Los Angeles International Airport with biofuels. Over the next three years, Paramount, a California-based company will pump biofuel directly to the airport from nearby refineries.
As a heating oil
Biodiesel can also be used as a heating fuel in domestic and commercial boilers, standardized heating and biofuel blends and taxed slightly differently from the diesel fuel used for transportation. Biofuel fuel is an exclusive blend of traditional biodiesel and oil heating. Bioheat is a registered trademark of the National Biodiesel Board [NBB] and National Oilheat Research Alliance [NORA] in the US, and Columbia Fuels in Canada. Biodiesel heating is available in various blends. ASTM 396 recognizes a mixture of up to 5 percent biodiesel equivalent to pure petroleum heating oil. A mixture of higher levels of up to 20% of biofuels is used by many consumers. Research is underway to determine whether the mixture affects performance.
Older furnaces may contain rubber parts that will be affected by the properties of biodiesel solvents, but may instead burn biodiesel without any necessary conversion. Care should be taken, however, given that the varnish left by petrodiesel will be removed and can clog fuel pipelines and rapid filter replacement is required. Another approach is to start using biodiesel as a mixture, and reducing the proportion of oil over time can allow the varnish to come out more gradually and tend not to get clogged. Thanks to its strong solvent properties, however, the furnace is cleaned and generally becomes more efficient. A technical research paper describes laboratory research and field test projects using pure biodiesel and biodiesel blends as heating fuel in an oil-fired boiler. During Biodiesel Expo 2006 in the UK, Andrew J. Robertson presented biodiesel heating oil research from his technical paper and suggested biodiesel B20 could reduce UK household CO emissions <1.5> per year.
A law passed under Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick requires all state warming diesel to be 2% biofuel as of July 1, 2010, and 5% biofuel by 2013. New York City has passed a similar law.
Clean oil spill
With an 80-90% oil spill cost invested in coastline clearance, there is a more efficient and cost-effective search method for extracting oil spills from the shoreline. Biodiesel has demonstrated its capacity to significantly dissolve crude oil, depending on the source of fatty acids. In laboratory settings, oily sediments that simulate polarized beaches are sprayed with a single layer of biodiesel and exposed to tidal simulations. Biodiesel is an effective solvent for oil due to its methyl ester component, which greatly decreases the viscosity of crude oil. In addition, it has a higher buoyancy than crude oil, which then helps in its displacement. As a result, 80% of oil is removed from cobble and fine sand, 50% in coarse sand, and 30% in gravel. After oil is freed from the shoreline, the oil-biodiesel mixture is manually removed from the water surface by skimmer. The remaining mixture is easily broken down due to high biodegradability of biodiesel, and increased mixed surface area.
Biodiesel in generator
In 2001, UC Riverside installed a 6-megawatt backup power system that is fully fueled by biodiesel. Diesel fueled generator reserves allow companies to avoid interruption of key operations at the expense of high levels of pollution and emissions. By using B100, this generator can essentially eliminate byproducts that produce smoke, ozone, and sulfur emissions. The use of these generators in residential areas around schools, hospitals, and the general public resulted in substantial reductions in carbon monoxide and toxic particles.
​​â € <â €
Transesterification of vegetable oils was done in 1853 by Patrick Duffy, four decades before the first diesel engine became functional. The main model of Rudolf Diesel, a single 10 ft (3.0 m) iron tube with a flywheel at its base, ran at its own pace for the first time in Augsburg, Germany, on August 10, 1893 running without peanut oil. As a reminder of this event, August 10 has been declared an "International Biodiesel Day".
It is often reported that Diesel designed the engine to run with peanut oil, but this did not happen. Diesel states in his published paper, "at the Paris Exposition in 1900 ( Exposition Universelle ) there is shown by Otto Company a small Diesel engine, which, at the request of the French government ran on arachide (peanuts or peas (see biodiesel), and works so well that few people realize it, this machine was built to use mineral oil, and then worked on vegetable oils without any changes made.The French government at the time thought of testing the application for electricity production Arachide, or peanuts, which grow in considerable quantities in their African colonies, and can be easily cultivated there. "Diesel himself then performs related tests and appears to support the idea. In Diesel's 1912 speech, "the use of vegetable oils for engine fuel may seem insignificant today but such oil can be, in the course of time, as important as current petroleum products and coal tar products."
Despite the widespread use of diesel fuel derived from petroleum, interest in vegetable oil as a fuel for internal combustion engines was reported in several countries during the 1920s and 1930s and later during World War II. Belgium, France, Italy, Britain, Portugal, Germany, Brazil, Argentina, Japan and China have reportedly tested and used vegetable oils as diesel fuel during this time. Some operational issues are reported because of the high viscosity of vegetable oils compared to diesel fuel, which produces bad atomization of fuel in fuel sprays and often causes deposits and cokes from injectors, combustion chamber and valves. Efforts to overcome this problem include heating vegetable oil, mixing it with diesel fuel derived from petroleum or ethanol, pyrolysis and oil cracking.
On August 31, 1937, G. Chavanne of the University of Brussels (Belgium) was granted a patent for "Procedure for transformation of vegetable oils for use as fuel" (fr. " Procà © à © dÃÆ'  © de Transformation d 'Huiles VÃÆ'  © gÃÆ'  © tales en Vue de Leur Utilization of comme Carburants ") Belgian Patent 422,877. This patent describes the alcoholic (often referred to as transesterification) vegetable oils using ethanol (and mentions methanol) to separate the fatty acids from glycerol by substituting glycerol with short linear alcohols. This appears to be the first report of what production is known as "biodiesel" today.
More recently, in 1977, Brazilian scientist Expedito Parente invented and filed for the first, industrial process for biodiesel production. This process is classified as biodiesel by international norms, conferring "identity and quality standards No other proposed biofuels have been validated by the motor industry." In 2010, Parente company, Tecbio is working with Boeing and NASA to certify bioquerosene (bio-kerosene), another product produced and patented by Brazilian scientists.
Research on the use of sunflower oil that has undergone transesterification, and refined it into standard diesel fuel, began in South Africa in 1979. In 1983, the process for producing fuel-quality biodiesel was completed and published internationally. An Austrian company, Gaskoks, obtains technology from the South African Agriculture Experts; the company established its first biodiesel pilot plant in November 1987, and the first industrial scale plant in April 1989 (with a capacity of 30,000 tonnes per year).
Throughout the 1990s, the factory opened in many European countries, including the Czech Republic, Germany and Sweden. France launches local production of biodiesel fuel (referred to as diester) from rapeseed oil, which is mixed into regular diesel fuel at a rate of 5%, and becomes the diesel fuel used by some retaining fleets (eg transport general) at a rate of 30%. Renault, Peugeot and other manufacturers have certified truck engines for use with partial biodiesel levels; experiments with 50% of biodiesel are underway. During the same period, countries in other parts of the world also saw local biodiesel production begin: in 1998, the Austrian Biofuels Institute has identified 21 countries with commercial biodiesel projects. 100% biodiesel is now available in many normal service stations across Europe.
Properties
Biodiesel has excellent lubricant properties and cetane ratings compared to low sulfur diesel fuels. Fuel with higher lubrication can increase the useful life of fuel-injected high fuel injection equipment for lubrication. Depending on the machine, this may include a high-pressure injection pump, a pump injector (also called an injector unit) and a fuel injector.
The calorific value of biodiesel is about 37.27 MJ/kg. It is 9% lower than the usual petrodiesel number 2. The variation in biodiesel energy density depends more on the raw materials used than the production process. However, this variation is less than for petrodiesel. It has been claimed that biodiesel provides better lubrication and more complete combustion thus increasing engine energy output and partly compensated for higher petrodiesel energy densities.
The color of biodiesel ranges from gold to dark brown, depending on the method of production. It is slightly soluble with water, has high boiling point and low vapor pressure. The biodiesel flash point exceeds 130Ã,  ° C (266Ã,  ° F), much higher than diesel oil that may be as low as 52Ã, ° C (126Ã,  ° F). Biodiesel has a density of ~ 0.88 g/cmÃ,³, higher than petrodiesel (~ 0.85 g/cmÃ,³).
Biodiesel contains almost no sulfur, and is often used as an additive to Ultra-Low Sulfur Diesel (ULSD) fuel to assist lubrication, since sulfur compounds in petrodiesel provide plenty of lubricants.
Fuel efficiency
The biodiesel power output depends on the mixture, quality, and load conditions at which the fuel is burned. The thermal efficiency for example B100 compared with B20 will vary due to different energy content of various mixtures. Fuel thermal efficiency is based in part on fuel characteristics such as: viscosity, special density, and flash point; these characteristics will change as the mix as well as the varied biodiesel quality. The American Society for Testing and Materials has set a standard for assessing the quality of a given fuel sample.
One study found that the B40 brake thermal efficiency was higher than traditional petroleum counterparts at higher compression ratios (higher brake heat efficiency was recorded at a 21: 1 compression ratio). It has been noted that, as the compression ratio increases, the efficiency of all types of fuel - as well as the tested mixture - increases; although it was found that the B40 mixture was the most economical at a 21: 1 compression ratio above all other mixtures. This study implies that the increase in efficiency is due to the fuel density, viscosity, and calorific value of the fuel.
Burning
Fuel systems in some modern diesel engines are not designed to accommodate biodiesel, while many heavy-duty engines can run with a mixture of biodiesel up to B20. The traditional direct injection fuel system operates at about 3,000 psi at the end of the injector while the modern common rail fuel system operates over 30,000 PSI at the tip of the injector. The components are designed to operate over a large temperature range, from below freezing to more than 1000 ° F (560 ° C). Diesel fuel is expected to burn efficiently and produce as few emissions as possible. Since emission standards are being introduced to diesel engines, the need to control harmful emissions is being designed into diesel engine fuel system parameters. The traditional inline injection system is more forgiving of poorer quality fuels than the common rail fuel system. Higher pressures and tighter tolerances of the common rail system allow for greater control over atomization and injection time. This atomization control as well as combustion allow for greater efficiency than modern diesel engines as well as greater control over emissions. The components in the diesel fuel system interact with the fuel by ensuring efficient operation of the fuel and engine systems. If the fuel outside the specification is introduced to a system that has certain operating parameters, then the integrity of the fuel system as a whole can be compromised. Some parameters such as spray and atomization patterns are directly related to injection time.
One study found that during atomization, biodiesel and mixtures produce droplets larger in diameter than the droplets produced by traditional petrodiesel. Smaller droplets are associated with lower viscosity and surface tension of traditional diesel fuel. It was found that the droplets on the periphery of the spray pattern were larger in diameter than the droplets at the center. This is associated with a faster drop in pressure on the edge of the spray pattern; there is a proportional relationship between the droplet size and the distance from the tip of the injector. It was found that B100 has the largest spray penetration, this is associated with greater B100 density. Having a larger droplet size can lead to inefficiencies in combustion, increased emissions, and decreased horsepower. In another study it was found that there was a short injection delay when injecting biodiesel. This injection delay is associated with a larger Biodiesel viscosity. It has been noted that higher viscosities and larger cetane ratings of biodiesel over traditional petrodiesel cause poor atomization, as well as penetration of mixtures with air during ignition delay periods. Another study notes that this ignition delay can help reduce NOx emissions.
Emissions
Emissions attached to diesel fuel combustion are regulated by the US Environmental Protection Agency (E.P.A.). Since these emissions are a by-product of the combustion process, to ensure E.P.A. compliance with fuel systems should be able to control fuel combustion as well as emissions mitigation. There are a number of emerging new technologies for controlling diesel emissions production. The exhaust gas recirculation system, E.G.R., and the diesel particulate diesel filter, D.P.F., are both designed to reduce the production of harmful emissions.
A study conducted by Chonbuk National University concluded that the B30 biodiesel blend reduces carbon monoxide emissions by about 83% and particle emissions by about 33%. NOx emissions, however, are found to increase without the application of E.G.R. system. The study also concluded that, with E.G.R, the B20 biodiesel mixture greatly reduces emissions from the engine. In addition, analysis by the California Air Resources Board found that biodiesel has the lowest carbon emissions from the tested fuels, namely ultra-low sulfur diesel, gasoline, corn-based ethanol, compressed natural gas, and five different types of biodiesel from various feedstocks.. Their conclusions also show a large difference in biodiesel carbon emissions based on the raw materials used. From soybeans, fat, canola, corn, and used cooking oil, soybean shows the highest carbon emissions, while the cooking oil used produces the lowest.
When studying the effects of biodiesel on diesel particulate filters, it was found that although the presence of sodium and potassium carbonate helps in the catalytic conversion of ash, since the diesel particles are catalyzed, they can converge in D.P.F. and thus interfere with filter clearance. This can cause clogged filters and disrupt the regeneration process. In a study on the impact of E.G.R. tariffs with a jatropha biodiesel mixture indicate that there is a decrease in fuel efficiency and torque output due to the use of biodiesel in diesel engines designed with E.G.R. system. It was found that CO and CO2 emissions increased with increasing exhaust gas recirculation but NOx levels decreased. The opacity levels of the jathropa mixture are within an acceptable range, where traditional diesel is beyond acceptable standards. It shows that NOx emission reductions can be obtained with E.G.R. system. This study shows advantages over traditional diesel within a specific operating range of E.G.R. system.
By 2017, mixed biodiesel fuel (mainly B5, B8, and B20) is regularly used in many heavy-duty vehicles, especially transit buses in US cities. Characterization of exhaust emissions shows significant emission reductions compared to regular diesel.
Material compatibility
- Plastics: High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is compatible but polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is slowly degraded. Polystyrene is dissolved when in contact with biodiesel.
- Metals: Biodiesel (such as methanol) has effects on copper-based materials (eg brass), and also affects zinc, lead, lead, and cast iron. Stainless steels (316 and 304) and aluminum are not affected.
- Rubber: Biodiesel also affects the type of natural rubber found in some older machine components. The study also found that fluorinated elastomers (FKM) healed with peroxides and base metal oxides can be degraded when biodiesel loses its stability caused by oxidation. The frequently used synthetic rubber FKM-GBL-S and FKM-GF-S found in modern vehicles are found to handle biodiesel in all conditions.
Technical standard
Biodiesel has a number of standards for its quality including European standards EN 14214, ASTM International D6751, and others.
Low temperature gel
When biodiesel is cooled below a certain point, some molecules collect and form crystals. The fuel starts to look cloudy after the crystal becomes larger than a quarter wavelength of visible light - this is the cloud point (CP). When the fuel is cooled further these crystals become larger. The lowest temperature at which the fuel can pass through a 45 micrometer filter is a cold filter blockage point (CFPP). When the biodiesel is cooled down further then it will gel and then solidify. In Europe, there are differences in CFPP requirements between countries. This is reflected in the different national standards of these countries. The temperature at which pure biodiesel (B100) begins to gel varies significantly and depends on the ester mixture and hence the feed oil used to produce biodiesel. For example, biodiesel produced from low root canola seed variety (RME) began to gel at about -10 ° C (14 ° F). Biodiesel produced from cow and palm fat tends to gel around 16 Ã, Â ° C (61Ã, Â ° F) and 13Ã, Â ° C (55Ã, Â ° F) respectively. There are a number of commercially available additives that will significantly lower the pour point and cold filter blockage points of pure biodiesel. Winter operation is also possible by combining biodiesel with other petroleum fuels including # 2 low-sulfur diesel and diesel/kerosene # 1.
Another approach to facilitate the use of biodiesel in cold conditions is to use a second fuel tank for biodiesel in addition to standard diesel fuel tanks. The second fuel tank can be isolated and the heating coil using the engine coolant is run through the tank. Fuel tanks can be diverted when fuel is warm enough. A similar method can be used to operate diesel vehicles using straight vegetable oil.
Contamination by water
Biodiesel may contain small but problematic amounts of water. Although only slightly soluble with water it is hygroscopic. One of the reasons why biodiesel can absorb water is the persistence of mono and diglycerides left over from incomplete reactions. These molecules can act as emulsifiers, allowing water to mix with biodiesel. In addition, there may be residual water to be processed or produced from storage tank condensation. The presence of water is a problem because:
- Water reduces heat burning fuel, causes smoke, starts harder, and reduces power.
- Water causes corrosion of fuel system components (pumps, fuel lines, etc.)
- Microbes in water cause paper element filters in the system to decay and fail, causing pump fuel failure due to swallowing large particles.
- The water freezes to form ice crystals that provide sites for nucleation, accelerating the formation of gelling fuel.
- Water causes pitting in the piston.
Previously, the amount of water polluting biodiesel was difficult to measure by taking samples, because water and oil were separated. However, it is now possible to measure the water content using a water-in-oil sensor.
Water contamination is also a potential problem when using certain chemical catalysts involved in the production process, substantially reducing the catalytic efficiency of basic (high pH) catalysts such as potassium hydroxide. However, the metallol supercritical production methodology, in which the transesterification of oil and methanol feedstocks effected under high temperatures and pressures, has been shown to be largely unaffected by the presence of water contamination during the production phase.
Availability and pricing
Global biodiesel production reached 3.8 million tons in 2005. About 85% of biodiesel production comes from the European Union.
In 2007, in the United States, the average retail price (at the pump), including federal and state fuel taxes, B2/B5 is lower than diesel oil about 12 cents, and the B20 mix is ​​the same as petrodiesel. However, as part of a dramatic change in diesel prices, in July 2009, the US DOE reported an average cost of B20 15 cents per gallon higher than diesel oil ($ 2.69/gal vs $ 2.54/gal). B99 and B100 are generally more expensive than petrodiesels unless local governments provide tax incentives or subsidies. In October 2016, Biodiesel (B20) is 2 cents lower/gallon than petrodiesel.
Production
Biodiesel is generally produced by transesterification of vegetable oils or animal fatty materials, and other non-edible feedstocks such as cooking oil, etc. There are several methods to carry out these transesterification reactions including general batch processes, heterogeneous catalysts, process supercritical, ultrasonic methods, and even microwave methods.
Chemically, transesterification of biodiesel consists of a mixture of mono-alkyl ester of long chain fatty acids. The most common form uses methanol (converted to sodium methoxide) to produce methyl esters (commonly referred to as Methyl Acid Methyl Ester - FAME) because it is the cheapest alcohol available, although ethanol can be used to produce ethyl ester (commonly referred to as ethyl fatty acid biodiesel Ester - FAEE) and higher alcohols such as isopropanol and butanol have also been used. Using higher molecular weight alcohols improves the cold flow properties of the resulting ester, with the cost of less efficient transesterification reactions. The lipid transesterification production process is used to convert the base oil to the desired ester. Each free fatty acid (FFA) in the base oil is converted to soap and removed from the process, or they are esterified (producing more biodiesel) using an acid catalyst. After this processing, unlike straight vegetable oil, biodiesel has very similar combustion properties to diesel oil, and can replace it in current usage.
Methanol used in most biodiesel production processes is made using fossil fuel inputs. However, there are renewable sources of methanol made using carbon dioxide or biomass as feedstock, making their production process free of fossil fuels.
A by-product of the transesterification process is the production of glycerol. For every 1 ton of biodiesel produced, 100 kg of glycerol is produced. Initially, there is a valuable market for glycerol, which helps the overall process economy. However, with an increase in global biodiesel production, the market price for this crude glycerol (containing 20% ​​water and catalyst residue) has fallen. Research is being done globally to use this glycerol as a chemical building block (see intermediate chemicals under the Wikipedia article "Glycerol"). One initiative in the UK is The Glycerol Challenge.
Usually the crude glycerol must be purified, usually by vacuum distillation. It's rather energy intensive. The fine glycerol (98% purity) can then be used directly, or converted into another product. The following announcement was made in 2007: A joint venture of Ashland Inc. and Cargill announced plans to make propylene glycol in Europe from glycerol and Dow Chemical announced a similar plan for North America. Dow also plans to build a factory in China to make epichlorhydrin from glycerol. Epichlorhydrin is the raw material for epoxy resins.
Production level
In 2007, the production capacity of biodiesel grew rapidly, with average annual growth rate from 2002-06 more than 40%. For 2006, the latest production figures can be obtained, total world biodiesel production is around 5-6 million tons, with 4.9 million tons processed in Europe (2.7 million tons from Germany) and most of the rest from USA. In 2008 production in Europe alone has increased to 7.8 million tonnes. In July 2009, the task was added to American import biodiesel in the EU to balance competition from Europe, especially German producers. Capacity for 2008 in Europe reaches 16 million tonnes. This compares with total demand for diesel in the US and Europe of about 490 million tons (147 billion gallons). Total world vegetable oil production for all purposes in 2005/06 is about 110 million tonnes, with about 34 million tonnes each of palm oil and soybean oil.
US biodiesel production in 2011 brings the industry to a new milestone. Under EPA's Renewable Fuel Standards, targets have been applied to biodiesel production plants to monitor and document production rates compared to total demand. According to year-end data released by the EPA, biodiesel production in 2011 reached more than 1 billion gallons. This production amount far exceeds the 800 million gallon target set by the EPA. Production projected for 2020 is nearly 12 billion gallons.
Biodiesel raw materials
Various oils can be used to produce biodiesel. These include:
- Virgin oil feedstock - the most commonly used rapeseed and soybean oil, soybean oil accounts for about half of US production. These can also be obtained from Pongamia, field pennycress and jatropha and other plants such as mustard, jojoba, hemp, sunflower, palm oil, coconut and hemp (see biofuels oil list for more information);
- Waste of vegetable oil (WVO);
- Animal fats include fat, lard, yellow fat, chicken fat, and by-products from the production of Omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil.
- Algae, which can grow using waste materials like dirt and without moving the land currently used for food production.
- Oil from halophytes such as Salicornia bigelovii , which can be grown using saltwater in coastal areas where conventional crops can not be grown, with the same results as soybeans and other oils grown using freshwater irrigation
- Sludge Wastewater - The waste-to-biofuel field attracts interest from big companies like Waste Management and startups like InfoSpi, which bets that renewable waste biodiesel can become competitive with diesel oil at a price.
Many advocates suggest that waste vegetable oil is the best source of oil to produce biodiesel, but because the available supply is drastically less than the amount of petroleum-based fuel burned for transportation and heating of homes in the world, this local solution can not scale to consumption levels currently.
Animal fat is a by-product of meat production and cooking. While it would not be efficient to keep animals (or catch fish) only for their fats, the use of byproducts adds value to the livestock industry (pigs, cattle, poultry). Currently, multi-feedstock biodiesel facilities produce high-quality animal-based biodiesel. Currently, a $ 5 million plant is under construction in the US, with the intention of producing 11.4 million liters (3 million gallons) of biodiesel from about 1 billion billion (2.2 billion pounds) of chicken fat produced annually in local Tyson poultry. Similarly, some small-scale biodiesel plants use waste fish oil as a raw material. An EU-funded project (ENERFISH) shows that in a Vietnamese plant to produce biodiesel from catfish (base, also known as patin), the output of 13 tons/day of biodiesel can be produced from 81 tons of fish waste (in turn generating from 130 tons of fish ). The project utilizes biodiesel to drive the CHP unit at a fish processing plant, primarily to drive a fish freeze plant.
Number of required raw materials
Production of vegetable oils and animal fats today around the world is not enough to replace the use of liquid fossil fuels. Furthermore, some objections to the large amount of agriculture and fertilization produced, the use of pesticides, and the conversion of land use required to produce additional vegetable oils. Estimates of transportation diesel fuel and home heating oil used in the United States are about 160 million tonnes (350 billion pounds) according to the Energy Information Administration, the US Department of Energy. In the United States, the estimated production of vegetable oils for all uses is about 11 million tonnes (24bn pounds) and the estimated animal fat production is 5.3mt tonnes (12bn pounds).
If all the fertile land in the United States (470 million hectares, or 1.9 million square kilometers) is devoted to biodiesel production from soybeans, it will only supply the required 160 million tons (assuming 98,000 gallons of US/acre biodiesel). This land area can in principle be significantly reduced by using algae, if obstacles can be overcome. The US DOE estimates that if algae fuel replaces all fuel oil in the United States, it would require 15,000 square miles (39,000 square kilometers), which are several thousand square miles larger than Maryland, or 30% larger than the Belgian region, assuming yield 140 ton/hectare (15,000 US gal/acre). With a more realistic result of 36 tonnes/hectare (3834 US gal/acre) the required area is about 152,000 square kilometers, or approximately the same as those in the states of Georgia or England and Wales. The excess algae is that algae can be planted in unfrowable land such as the desert or in the marine environment, and the potential for oil yields is much higher than that of the plants.
Yield
The efficiency of raw material yield per unit area affects the feasibility of increasing production to the large industrial level required to generate a significant percentage of vehicles.
Algae fuel results have not been accurately determined, but DOE reportedly says that algae produce 30 times more energy per acre than land plants such as soybeans. 36 tonnes/hectare is considered practical by Ami Ben-Amotz of the Oceanographic Institute in Haifa, which has been farming commercial algae for more than 20 years.
Jatropha has been cited as a source of high biodiesel yields but the results are highly dependent on climatic and soil conditions. Estimates at the low end place results at around 200 US gal/ha (1.5-2 tons per hectare) per plant; in better climates two or more plants per year have been achieved. It is grown in the Philippines, Mali and India, drought resistant, and can share space with other commercial crops such as coffee, sugar, fruits and vegetables. This is particularly suitable for semi-arid lands and may contribute to slow desertification, according to supporters.
Economic efficiency and arguments
According to a study by Drs. Van Dyne and Raymer for the Tennessee Valley Authority, the average farm in the US consumes fuel at 82 liters per hectare ($ 8.75/hectare) of land to produce one harvest. However, the average plant-oil plant generates an average of 1,029 L/ha (110 US gal/acre), and high-yield rapeseed produce yields about 1.356 L/ha (145 gal US/acre). The input to output ratio in this case is approximately 1: 12.5 and 1: 16.5. Photosynthesis is known to have an efficiency rate of about 3-6% of the total solar radiation and if the entire mass of the plant is used for energy production, the overall efficiency of this chain is currently about 1% Although this may not be comparable to the sun. The cells are combined with electric drive trains, biodiesel is cheaper to use (solar cell costs about US $ 250 per square meter) and transportation (electric vehicles require batteries that currently have much lower energy density than liquid fuels). A 2005 study found that biodiesel production using soybeans requires 27% more fossil energy than produced biodiesel and 118% more energy using sunflower.
However, these statistics alone are not sufficient to show whether the change makes economic sense. Additional factors must be taken into account, such as: fuels equivalent to the energy required for processing, fuel yields from crude oil, profits on food cultivation, biodiesel effects on food prices and relative costs of biodiesel versus petrodiesel, water pollution from agricultural runoff, soil depletion , and the costs of political and military interventions that are modernized in oil-producing countries intended to control petrodiesel prices.
The debate on the balance of biodiesel energy is in progress. A full transition to biofuel can require a very large area if traditional food crops are used (although non-food crops can be utilized). The problem will be very severe for countries with large economies, because of the scale of energy consumption with economic output.
If only using traditional food crops, most of these countries do not have enough land to produce biofuels for national vehicles. Countries with smaller economies (hence less energy consumption) and more fertile land may be in a better situation, although many regions are unable to divert land from food production.
For third world countries, biodiesel sources that use marginal land can make more sense; for example, pound oiltree beans grown along roads or jatropha that grow along rail lines.
In the tropics, such as Malaysia and Indonesia, palm oil crops are grown rapidly to supply growing demand for biodiesel in Europe and other markets. Scientists have pointed out that the removal of rainforests for oil palm plantations is not ecological because oil palm expansion becomes a threat to natural rainforests and biodiversity.
It is estimated in Germany that palm oil biodiesel has less than a third of the cost of biodiesel production of vegetable. The direct source of biodiesel energy content is solar energy captured by plants during photosynthesis. Regarding the positive energy balance of biodiesel:
- When straw is left in the field, biodiesel production has a strong positive energy, producing 1 GJ of biodiesel for every 0.561 GJ of energy input (yield ratio/cost of 1.78).
- When the straw is burned as fuel and rapemeal seed oil is used as a fertilizer, the yield/cost ratio for biodiesel production is even better (3.71). In other words, for each unit of energy input to produce biodiesel, its output is 3.71 units (2.71 unit difference will come from solar energy).
Economic impact
Various economic studies have been conducted on the economic impact of biodiesel production. One study, commissioned by the National Biodiesel Board, reported 2011 biodiesel production supporting 39,027 jobs and over $ 2.1 billion in household income in the United States. Biodiesel growth also helps significantly increase GDP. In 2011, biodiesel generated more than $ 3 billion in GDP. Judging from the continued growth in the Renewable Fuel Standards and the expansion of biodiesel tax incentives, the number of jobs can increase to 50,725, $ 2.7 billion in revenue, and reach $ 5 billion in GDP in 2012 and 2013.
Energy security
One of the main drivers for adoption of biodiesel is energy security. This means that a country's dependence on oil is reduced, and replaced by the use of locally available resources, such as coal, gas, or renewable sources. Thus a country can benefit from the adoption of biofuels, without reducing greenhouse gas emissions. While the total energy balance is disputed, it is clear that dependence on oil is reduced. One example is the energy used to produce fertilizer, which can come from a variety of sources other than petroleum. The US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) states that energy security is the number one driving force behind the US biofuel program, and the paper "Energy Security for the 21st Century" The White House makes it clear that energy security is the main reason for promoting biodiesel. Former EU commission president Jose Manuel Barroso, speaking at a recent EU biofuels conference, stressed that properly managed biofuels have the potential to strengthen the security of EU supplies through the diversification of energy sources.
Global biofuels policy
Many countries around the world are involved in the growing use and production of biofuels, such as biodiesel, as an alternative energy source for fossil fuels and oil. To encourage the biofuels industry, the government has implemented laws and legislation as an incentive to reduce oil dependence and to increase the use of renewable energy. Many countries have their own independent policies regarding taxes and rebates on the use of biodiesel, imports, and production.
Canada
This is required by Canadian Environmental Protection Bill Bill C-33 that in 2010, gasoline contains 5% renewable content and by 2013, diesel and heating oil contains 2% renewable content. The EcoENERGY for Biofuels Program subsidizes the production of biodiesel, among other biofuels, through the incentive rate of CAN $ 0.20 per liter from 2008 to 2010. A reduction of $ 0.04 will be applied every following year, until the incentive rate reaches $ 0.06 in the year 2016. Individual provinces also have special legislative measures in the use and production of biofuels.
United States
Excise Tax Credit Volumetric Ethanol (VEETC) is the main source of financial support for biofuels but is scheduled to end in 2010. Through this action, biodiesel production guarantees a tax credit of US $ 1 per gallon produced from virgin oil, and $ 0, 50 per gallon made from recycled oil. Currently, soybean oil is used to produce soy biodiesel for many commercial purposes such as fuel mixing for the transportation sector.
European Union
The EU is the largest producer of biodiesel, with France and Germany as major producers. To increase the use of biodiesel, there is a policy that requires the mixing of biodiesel into fuel, including a penalty if the tariff is not achieved. In France, the goal is to achieve 10% integration but plans for it to be discontinued in 2010. As an incentive for EU countries to continue biofuel production, there is a tax break for the specific quota of biofuel produced. In Germany, the minimum percentage of biodiesel in diesel transport is set at 7% called "B7".
Environmental effects
The surge of interest in biodiesel has highlighted a number of environmental effects associated with its use. This could potentially include reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, pollution and biodegradation rates.
According to EPA's Renewable Fuel Standards Program Regulatory Impact Analysis, released in February 2010, biodiesel from soybean oil yields, on average, in a 57% reduction in greenhouse gases compared to petroleum diesel, and biodiesel resulting from fatty waste in 86% reduction. See chapter 2.6 of the EPA report for more details.
However, environmental organizations, for example, Rainforest Rescue and Greenpeace, criticize planting crops used for biodiesel production, for example, palm oil, soybeans and sugarcane. They say logging tropical rainforests is exacerbating climate change and that sensitive ecosystems are being destroyed to clear land for oil palm, soybean and sugarcane plantations. In addition, biofuels contribute to world hunger, given the fertile soil is no longer used for growing food. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published data in January 2012, showing that biofuel made from palm oil will not account for the nation's renewable fuel mandates because they are not climate friendly. Environmentalists have welcomed this conclusion as the growth of oil palm plantations has encouraged tropical deforestation, for example, in Indonesia and Malaysia.
Food, land and water vs. BBM
In some poor countries, rising vegetable oil prices are causing problems. Some propose that fuel is made only from edible vegetable oils such as camelina, jatropha or seashore mallow that can thrive on marginal farms where many trees and plants will not grow, or will only produce low yields.
Others argue that the problem is more fundamental. Farmers can switch from producing food crops to producing biofuel crops to make more money, even if new plants are not edible. The law of supply and demand predicts that if fewer farmers produce food, food prices will rise. It may take some time, because farmers can take time to change what they are planting, but increasing demand for first generation biofuels is likely to lead to price increases for different types of food. Some people point out that there are poor farmers and poor countries that earn more money because of higher vegetable oil prices.
Biodiesel from seaweed will not always replace the terrestrial land that is currently used for food production and new algaaculture work can be made.
Latest research
There is ongoing research to find more suitable plants and increase oil yields. Other sources are likely to include human waste, with Ghana building the first "mud stool biodiesel feeding plant". Using current results, large amounts of soil and freshwater will be needed to produce enough oil to completely replace fossil fuel use. That would require twice the area of ​​US land to be devoted to soy production, or two-thirds to be devoted to rapeseed production, to meet current US warming and transportation needs.
Specially bred mustard varieties can produce high oil yields and are very useful in crop rotation with cereals, and have the added benefit that food scraps after oil is pressed out can act as an effective and biodegradable pesticide.
NFESC, with the Santa Barbara-based Biodiesel industry is working on developing biodiesel technology for the US navy and military, one of the world's largest diesel fuel users.
A group of Spanish developers working for a company called Ecofasa announced a new biofuel made from waste. Fuel is made from common urban waste that is processed by bacteria to produce fatty acids, which can be used to make biodiesel.
Another approach that does not require the use of chemicals for production involves the use of genetically modified microbes.
Algal biodiesel
From 1978 to 1996, US NREL experimented with algae as a source of biodiesel in the "Aquatic Species Program". A self-published article by Michael Briggs, at UNH Biodiesel Group, offers estimates for the realistic replacement of all vehicle fuels with biodiesel by utilizing algae that contain natural oils greater than 50%, which according to Briggs can be grown in algae ponds. in wastewater treatment plants. Oil-rich algae can then be extracted from the system and processed into biodiesel, with the remaining dry processed further to create ethanol.
Production of algae for harvesting oil for biodiesel has not yet been done on a commercial scale, but feasibility studies have been undertaken to achieve the above results estimates. In addition to the projected high yields, algaculture - unlike plant - based biofuels - does not cause a decline in food production, as it does not require agricultural or freshwater. Many companies are pursuing bio-algae reactors for various purposes, including increasing the production of biodiesel to commercial levels.
Prof. Rodrigo E. Teixeira of the University of Alabama in Huntsville showed the extraction of biodiesel lipids from wet algae using simple and economical reactions in ionic liquids.
Pongamia
Millettia pinnata, also known as Pongam Oiltree or Pongamia, is a grain-bean tree that has been identified as a candidate for the production of edible vegetable oil.
Pongamia plantation for biodiesel production has twofold environmental benefits. The trees both store carbon and produce fuel oil. Pongamia grows on marginal land that is not suitable for food crops and does not require nitrate fertilizer. The oil-producing tree has the highest yields of oil crops (about 40% of the seed's weight is oil) while growing on nutrient-rich soils with high salinity. This is a major focus in a number of biodiesel research organizations. The main advantage of Pongamia is the recovery and quality of oil higher than other crops and no direct competition with food crops. However, growth in marginal land can lead to lower oil yields that can lead to competition with food crops for better soil.
Jatropha
Several groups in various sectors are conducting research on Jatropha curcas, a tree that looks like a toxic bush that produces seeds considered by many as a viable source for biodiesel fuel oils. Many of these studies focus on increasing the overall Jatropha oil yield per hectare through advances in genetics, soil science, and horticultural practices.
SG Biofuels, a San Diego-based Jatropha developer, has been using molecular breeding and biotechnology to produce elite Jatropha hybrid seeds that show a significant increase in yield over first generation varieties. SG Biofuels also claims that additional benefits have emerged from these strains, including increased interest synchronicity, higher resistance to pests and diseases, and improved cold weather tolerance.
Plant Research International, a department of Wageningen University and Research Center in the Netherlands, maintains an ongoing Jatropha Evaluation Project (JEP) that examines the feasibility of large-scale Jatropha cultivation through field and laboratory experiments.
The Center for Sustainable Energy Agriculture (CfSEF) is a Los Angeles-based nonprofit research organization dedicated to Jatropha research in crop science, agronomy, and horticulture. This successful exploration of discipline is projected to increase Jatropha's agricultural output by 200-300% in the next ten years.
Mushroom
A group at the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow published a paper in September 2008, stating that they have isolated large amounts of lipids from single-celled fungi and turn them into biodiesel in an economically efficient way. More research on this species of fungus; Cunninghamella japonica , and others, will likely appear in the near future.
The latest discovery of the mushroom variant Gliocladium roseum refers to a production called myco-diesel from cellulose. This organism was recently discovered in the northern Patagonia rain forest and has the unique ability to convert cellulose into medium-sized hydrocarbons commonly found in diesel fuel.
Biodiesel from used coffee powder
Researchers at the University of Nevada, Reno, have succeeded in producing biodiesel from oil derived from used coffee powder. Their analysis of the reasons used show oil content of 10% to 15% (by weight). After the oil is extracted, it undergoes conventional processing into biodiesel. It is estimated that ready-made biodiesel can be produced about one US dollar per gallon. Further, it was reported that "the technique is not difficult" and that "there is so much coffee around that several hundred million gallons of biodiesel can potentially be made every year." However, even if all the coffee fields in the world are used to make fuel, the amount produced will be less than 1 percent of the diesel used in the United States each year. "That will not solve the world's energy problems," said Dr. Misra about her work.
Exotic source
Recently, fat alligators were identified as sources for producing biodiesel. Every year, about 15 million pounds of crocodile fats are dumped in landfills as a by-product of meat extraction and the crocodile skin industry. Studies have shown that biodiesel produced from crocodile fat has a similar composition to biodiesel made from soybeans, and is cheaper to distill because it is a waste product.
Biodiesel to hydrogen cell power
A microreactor has been developed to convert biodiesel into hydrogen vapor into fuel cells.
Steam update , also known as fossil fuel reform is a process that produces hydrogen gas from hydrocarbon fuel, especially biodiesel because of its efficiency. A ** microreactor **, or a reformer, is a processing device in which moisture reacts with liquid fuel under high temperature and pressure. Below temperatures ranging from 700 - 1100 ° C, nickel based catalysts allow the production of carbon monoxide and hydrogen:
Hydrocarbon H2O? CO 3 H2 (Very endothermic)
Furthermore, higher yields of hydrogen gas can be utilized by further oxidizing carbon monoxide to produce more hydrogen and carbon dioxide:
CO H2O -> CO2 H2 (Eksotermis Ringan)
Background information of hydrogen fuel cells
Fuel cells operate similarly to batteries in electricity utilized from chemical reactions. The difference in fuel cells when compared to batteries is their ability to be supported by the constant flow of hydrogen found in the atmosphere. Furthermore, they only produce water as a by-product, and almost silent. The weakness of hydrogen fuel cells is the high cost and
Source of the article : Wikipedia
0 Comments